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Cult sites and temples

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Introduction

Offerings in water

Everyone practised their religion in their own particular way, either privately or within the local community. Many houses of the Roman period had a domestic altar. People would also attend the temple. We are not exactly sure how people practised their religion in the Iron Age. We do however know that they made offerings at certain cult sites, particularly on rivers and at wetland sites such as peat marshes. People would throw weapons and other objects into the water. A lot of this type of material has been dredged up at Kessel and Lith in the river area, for example. Human bones have even been found here, some of which show signs of violence. It is likely they found their way into the water as offerings to the gods. Many cult sites have been identified only by the unique finds made there. Traces of actual shrines are rare, as they have been largely washed away by the water. It is however quite possible that shrines existed in the Iron Age. Unfortunately, we do not know how big they were or what they looked like, though the many votive offerings found at Kessel and Lith, for example, suggest that some shrines may have been fairly large.

Religion and politics

Most of the open-air shrines excavated to date were situated at a prominent place in the landscape, such as the confluence of two rivers or a higher-lying ridge. They were relatively small and simple and, as their name suggests, no building stood within the enclosure. Many shrines will have been used mainly by the local community, though some drew worshippers from far and wide. There was therefore a hierarchy among cult sites, which ranged from local to supra-regional in importance. The larger cult sites in the Roman period were probably associated with a tribal area (which the Romans called a pagus or civitas). They were part of the public domain, and thus also of a political and administrative system. They were therefore built on common ground, using public funds. The costs of the rituals performed by priests and magistrates were also paid from the public purse. A priest in a regional cult probably held an official office. Generally speaking, Roman rituals will have been the first to reach these regional cult sites. From the start of the Roman period, therefore, temples increasingly incorporated Roman features, such as a podium or colonnade. The most common type of temple in the Roman Netherlands was the Gallo-Roman temple, whose square innermost shrine was surrounded by a colonnade. The new temples, with their Roman-style architectural features, were symbols of loyalty to the Roman authorities and an expression of a desire for full integration into the Roman empire. The architecture of the new temples was therefore above all a political statement. It was probably also the case that, the more opulent a temple, the higher the status and greater the reputation of the deity to whom it was dedicated.

Indigenous shrines in town

There were no towns in the Iron Age. The first towns in the Netherlands grew up under the influence of the Romans. The temples found in towns are therefore Gallo-Roman temples, which had no indigenous forerunners.

Indigenous shrines in the countryside

Open-air shrines

It is not known whether certain buildings or structures would have stood at the wetland sites where offerings were made. It is suspected that there were special structures, but since the sites were usually on the banks of a river, any traces will have largely been washed away. We do however know of a number of cult sites on dry land. They were established in the first century AD, and some remained in use into the third century. Their form seems to hark back to the cult sites of three hundred years previously. They were small open-air shrines in the form of a square plot surrounded by a ditch, and sometimes an embankment, dividing the spiritual world and the ordinary world. Within the enclosure, posts stood in a distinctive pattern. Ancient writers also report sacred trees at the shrines of the indigenous population. People brought offerings of weapons, coins, cloak pins, bracelets, food and drink to the shrine. These offerings, which were placed in large pits, have told us a lot about the shrines. Such finds are an important indicator of cult sites, as they often differ in type and quantity from finds commonly made at settlement sites.

A shrine at a settlement

The shrine at Hoogeloon is typical in terms of its shape and structure of the open-air shrines found so far in the southern Netherlands, albeit one of the smallest. It was a 20.5 x 22.5 m square surrounded by a ditch 50-100 cm wide and originally probably 60-130 cm deep. There were two gaps in the ditch on opposite sides. Within the enclosure stood two rows of posts and probably also one or more trees. Although the finds at the cult site in Hoogeloon differed somewhat from the normal votive offerings at other shrines, they were clearly intended as offerings. The contents of the pits included deliberately broken pottery and iron blades. The pottery, imported from other parts of the Roman empire, was very unusual for that period in the Netherlands. The cult site at Hoogeloon lay 50 m outside the enclosure of the excavated settlement, which in the second century grew into a villa-like settlement with a main building in the Roman style. The shrine was still in use at the time of the villa. It is not the only shrine known to have stood near a villa-like settlement. A small shrine was also found at Oss-Westerveld.

Dating indigenous shrines

The open-air shrines found to date were all built in the first century AD. Some seem to have disappeared again in the course of the second century, though others remained in use into the third century. This means that indigenous shrines were used at the same time as the more Roman-style temples that have also been found in rural areas.

Temples in the Mediterranean tradition

In the northern provinces, particularly in the towns, temples were also built according to the Mediterranean tradition. In the harbour of the colonia in Xanten, just across the German border, for example, people could attend a large temple that would not have looked out of place in one of the Roman towns in Italy. However, no temples built in the Mediterranean tradition have yet been found in the Netherlands, though the two Roman towns on Dutch territory have not yet been fully investigated.

Provincial temples

New temples

The most common type of temple in the Roman Netherlands is known as a Gallo-Roman temple. These temples, which were common in the northern provinces, were a provincial variation on the classical temple. The Gallo-Roman temple consisted of a tower-like chamber – the cella – which housed the idol, and was therefore the most sacred part of the temple. A covered colonnade ran around this chamber. The temple was not accessible to the faithful, who would pray, make offerings and attend rituals at the altar in front of the temple. The altar was therefore the most important feature of the temple site, as no rituals could be performed without it. The temple and altar were generally in a walled enclosure, in which other smaller shrines might also stand. There are several variations on temple buildings, distinguished mainly by classical architectural features such as columns and a podium. The Gallo-Roman temple in the centre of Elst, for example, stood on a podium, a classical feature that has been found in only a few Gallo-Roman temples. Some temple complexes have two or more enclosed temples alongside each other, like the two temples on the Maasplein in Nijmegen.

Government involvement

Several of the Gallo-Roman temples found in the Netherlands are now known to have been built around AD 100. It is striking that several temples were built in the same period, and perhaps an indication of government involvement in the building of temples. Another indication comes in the form of three skulls found in the large temple at Elst. Belonging to a pig, sheep and cow, they might have been the remains of a typical Roman purification ritual, known as a suovetaurilia, in which an animal from each of these species was led around the site to purify it and then sacrificed. The sacrifice was probably made to the deity on the building of the second temple. Furthermore, the stone used to build the stone temples was quarried by the Roman army in the German Rhineland. The temples in the centre of Elst and in Elst-Westeraam also had more classical features than the average Gallo-Roman temple.

All these indications of government involvement suggest the hand of emperor Traianus, who was in power from AD 98 to 117. It is known that he focused on the development and integration of the border provinces, with the aim of achieving stability and firm control. This not only required a good infrastructure, but also the development of a civilian administration and social stability. It is quite possible that he built public buildings in rural areas in an attempt to achieve this. The building of temples might have played an important role in the integration of the population and the administrative structure of the civitas.

Where were these provincial temples?

Thus far, remains of Gallo-Roman temples have been found throughout the southern Netherlands. Most were probably in rural centres. The Gallo-Roman temple complex in the Roman city of Nijmegen is exceptional. The largest concentration of temples so far found is in the territory of the Batavians, and includes the temples at Nijmegen, Elst, Cuijk, Empel and Kessel-Lith. Outside the river area, the foundations of a small temple have been found in Aardenburg, Zeeland, as well as the remains of a temple in Maastricht. Thus far no temple remains have been excavated in the civitas capital in Voorburg.

Temple in a town: Nijmegen

There were at least two different temples in Ulpia Noviomagus near Nijmegen, the civitas capital of the Batavians. One, which stood by the river, we know little about. Only a possible wall has been excavated, and a number of votive altars and god figurines have been found in the surrounding area.
On the Maasplein, on the edge of what was the Roman town of Ulpia Noviomagus, a temple complex has been found consisting of two walled shrines that stood next to each other. The complex was built around AD 100 in accordance with the Gallo-Roman principle. Both shrines consisted of a more or less square walled enclosure – the temple precinct – with a rectangular temple standing on a podium in the centre, accessible via stairs on the east side. It is likely that other smaller shrines – probably to other gods – stood both inside and just outside the precinct. On the north and south side of the temple complex were colonnades leading to several chambers. One of these chambers on the south side was probably used for rituals. In the other chambers, the faithful could probably buy votive offerings or trinkets. The main gods worshipped there are likely to have been Fortuna and Mercury – Fortuna in one temple and Mercury in the other. Both were gods of prosperity and wellbeing, Fortuna being worshipped by women, and Mercury by men.

28 Maasplein tempels reconstrcutietekening

Temple in a rural centre: Maastricht

The remains of the walled forecourt of a Roman temple have been found in Maastricht, beneath Hotel Derlon. Unfortunately, the temple itself has not been excavated, so we do not know whether it was a Gallo-Roman temple or another type. In the excavated forecourt, the foundations and pedestal of a large Jupiter Column were found, along with the remains of several small buildings. Fragments of the gateway suggest the temple site had a monumental sculpted entrance. The gateway had carvings on either side, and a span measuring some 2.5 metres. Few such carved archways have been found in a similar context. The images are moreover unique in Provincial Roman architectural décor. The carving on the arch includes depictions of oak leaves and an eagle with a wreath in its beak, both symbols of Jupiter and the cult of the emperor. The carved archway dates from the same period as the large Jupiter Column whose pedestal has been found within the temple walls – c. AD 138-180. The Medieval Basilica of Our Lady was probably built over the Roman temple.

Temple in the countryside: Empel

In Empel, just to the south of the river Maas, the progression from an indigenous shrine to a Gallo-Roman temple can be clearly discerned. The temple stood on a protruding sandy outcrop, giving it a striking aspect in this landscape sculpted by the rivers, with its old gullies and river deposits. The fact that the Gallo-Roman temple in Empel had an indigenous predecessor in the first century BC is evidenced by the many unique metal objects found there. They include cloak pins (fibulae), gold and silver Celtic coins, bronze belt hooks and fragments of bronze swords. Such finds are rare in settlements or gravefields, which strongly suggests that this was in fact a cult site. The dates of the finds suggest that the cult site may have already been in use in 100 BC, and possibly even earlier. In the early stages there were probably no monumental buildings there, and the site is likely to have been an open-air shrine at that time. This continued to be the case until the Early Roman period (up to c. AD 50), although there do seem to have been two 18-metre rows of posts oriented east-west during that period. They probably had a ritual function, as Early Roman votive offerings have been found around the post arrangements. There were several large pits around the northern row, which have also yielded remains of a number of metal objects. Parallel to the northern and southern edges of the river dune (donk) stood several dense rows of stakes, which may have formed some kind of perimeter fence. They might also have had a role in water management at the
site, possibly as part of a flood barrier.

Some time towards the end of the first century AD a monumental Gallo-Roman temple was built, similar to those found in Elst and Nijmegen, for example. It consisted of a walled precinct (temenos) with a large antechamber and two smaller chambers behind. The temple itself stood on a podium and was probably built entirely of stone, as indicated by a fragment of a stone window recess.

There is a lot of evidence to suggest that the temple was dedicated to the god Hercules-Magusanus, a fusion of an indigenous god and a Roman demi-god, to whom many objects were offered at this temple. Many items of military equipment have also been found. Hercules Magusanus appears to have enjoyed great popularity among soldiers in the Roman army. A bronze plaque bearing a votive inscription to Hercules Magusanus not only tells us the name of the god venerated at the temple in Empel, but also the name of one of the Roman army veterans who made an offering here.

Different phases of building

The most common form of temple in the Roman Netherlands is the Gallo-Roman temple. Such temples – a provincial variation on the classical temple – were fairly widespread in the northern provinces. Some probably developed from indigenous shrines. When a temple was built, most traces of the underlying shrine will have been destroyed, though the remaining traces and finds do allow us to draw some conclusions about the different phases.

Two temples

In Elst, in the heart of Batavian territory, two Gallo-Roman temples have been excavated in close proximity to each other. The better-known of the two lies beneath a church in the centre of Elst, and its foundations can still be viewed. It is one of the largest Gallo-Roman temples currently known, and probably played an important role in the organisation of Batavian religion. A second, smaller temple has been found in Elst-Westeraam, some 650 metres as the crow flies from the temple beneath the church. This second temple was not excavated until a few years ago. The robber trenches of an enclosed Gallo-Roman temple were found.

A wooden cult building

The first phase of the temple consisted of a wooden cult building erected in AD 10-20 on the banks of a small, almost dried-up river. It was a two-aisled, rectangular building with a temple precinct (temenos) around it. The entire thing was surrounded by ditches and a palisade of upright wooden planks. Remains of these planks have been found in the outermost of the two surrounding ditches, and have been dated on the basis of their tree ring pattern. After this first phase the building was reconstructed twice in wood. The orientation of the building changed during reconstruction. In the third and final timber phase (c. AD 70-100) the entrance was eventually situated on the west side of the building and surrounding palisade. Interestingly, a row of posts found during the excavation suggests that there was also an open-air shrine immediately behind the cult building in the third phase.

Rebuilt in stone

The temple was rebuilt in stone around AD 100. Whereas it had been a two-aisled building in the past, the new temple was built in the Gallo-Roman style. Although the temple at Elst-Westeraam was smaller than that in the centre of Elst, it had an impressive entrance that protruded above the roof of the colonnade. There was a pediment, or tympanum, above the entrance, supported by columns larger than those found in the rest of the building. The roof of the inner chamber, the cella, was higher than that of the surrounding colonnade, as was common in Gallo-Roman temples. The temple underwent modifications in the second half of the first century, with the addition of a stone extension (an exedra) against the southern portico of the temple. The temple still stood in an enclosed precinct surrounding by a palisade. On the edge of the site there were probably two other shrines with cult images. A well and fourteen small ovens have also been found in the temple precinct, offering an insight into the rituals that were performed on the temple site. The ovens contained remains of burnt food (meat and bread). The temple at Elst-Westeraam was probably abandoned some time in the second half of the second century.

Roman foot

Interestingly, the design of the cult building and surrounding precinct for the second phase (from AD 38-39) was based on the Roman foot (pes). This suggests that Romans or Roman army veterans were already involved in the building of the temple at this early stage.

Summary

Indigenous shrines

Though we do not know exactly how religion was practised in the Iron Age, we do know that people made offerings at certain cult sites. Rivers and wetland sites such as peat bogs were particularly popular places to make offerings.
Open-air shrines also existed several centuries before the present era. Those excavated so far date from the first century AD, and tended to be situated at a prominent place in the landscape, such as the confluence of two rivers. They were relatively small and simple and, as their name suggests, there was not usually a building within the enclosure. The shrine would consist of a more or less square enclosed space with special rows of posts that appear to have been an important focus of the religious practises of the time. There was probably also a sacred tree at many open-air shrines. Votive offerings were placed by the posts and in pits on the site. Some shrines remained in use well into the Roman period, though some were eventually replaced by a Roman-style temple.

A new form of temple

The most common type of temple was the Gallo-Roman temple, which was fairly widespread in the northern provinces. The Gallo-Roman temple – a provincial variation on the classical temple – consisted of a tower-like chamber, the cella, which housed a cult image, and was thus the most sacred part of the temple. Around this chamber there was a colonnade. The temple was not accessible to the faithful, and prayers, offerings and rituals would have taken place at the altar in front of the temple. The altar was therefore the most important element of the temple site. The temple and altar usually stood in an enclosed precinct, in which several smaller shrines often also stood. The Gallo-Roman temples found in the Netherlands all date to the end of the first century AD, although some of them were successors to much older shrines that stood at the same site. The largest concentration of Gallo-Roman temples found to date is in the river area, with examples in Elst, Empel, Cuijk and Nijmegen.

Roman involvement

In the Roman period there was a hierarchy of cult sites, which ranged from local to supraregional in importance. The larger cult sites in the Roman period were probably associated with a tribal area (which the Romans called a pagus or civitas). They played an important role in the community and in politics, and were therefore also important to the Romans. There is evidence that a number of temples underwent major modifications at the end of the first century with the help of the Roman authorities. Examples include the two temples in Elst.

Margje Vermeulen-Bekkering

References

General:
Derks, T.,1998, Gods, Temples and Ritual Practices. The transformation of religious ideas and values in roman Gaul. (Amsterdam Archaeological Studies 2). Amsterdam

Es, W.A. van, 1981, De Romeinen in Nederland. Bussum.

Grooth, M. de & B. Mater, 1997, Een huis voor altijd? In: M. de Grooth en B. Mater, Een huis voor altijd. Maastricht

Indiginous shrines:
Slofstra, J & W. van der Sanden, 1987, Rurale cultusplaatsen uit de Romeinse tijd in het Maas-Demer-Schelde gebied. (Analecta Praehistoria Leidensia 20) 125-168

Verhart, L., 2006, Op zoek naar de Kelten. Nieuwe archeologische ontdekkingen tussen Noordzee en Rijn. Utrecht.

Temples in the Netherlands:
Enckevort, H. van & J.Thijssen (ed.), 2002, Cuijk. Een regionaal centrum in de Romeinse tijd. Utrecht.

Enckevort, H. van & J. Thijssen (red) 2005, In de schaduw van het Noorderlicht. de Gallo-Romeinse tempel van Elst-Westeraam. Abcoude/Nijmegen

Panhuysen, T.A.S.M., 1996, Romeins Maastricht en zijn beelden. Maastricht/Assen.

Roymans, N. & T. Derks, 1990, Ein keltisch-römischer Kultbezirk bei Empel (Niederlande), Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt, 443-451

Roymans, N.& T. Derks, 1993, Der Tempel von Empel. Ein Hercules-Heiligtum im Batavergebiet, Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 23, 479-492.

Roymans, N & T. Derks (red), 1994, De tempel van Empel een Hercules-heiligdom in het woongebied van de Bataven . (Graven naar het Brabantse verleden 2) 's-Hertogenbosch

Zee, K., 2005, Religie. In: W.J.H. Willems et al. (ed.), Nijmegen. Geschiedenis van de oudste stad van Nederland. Wormer. 185-198