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"When at length they deemed that they were prepared for that purpose, they set fire to all their strongholds (oppida), in number about twelve, their villages (vici), in number about 400 and the rest of their private buildings (aedificia privata); they burnt up all their corn save that which they were to carry with them…" (trans. H.J.Edwards (Loeb edition).
This source clearly shows that, apart from defended urban sites, the infrastructure of Helvetian territory also contained village type settlements as well as what must have been a fairly large number of isolated farms, if the figures given in the text were realistic. Little is currently known about these farms, especially in the period after the Gallic War, mostly because of the difficulties encountered in locating such flimsy late LaTène timber structures, especially on the soils which dominate the study area. The near total lack of evidence for Iron Age predecessors at the sites of better studied Roman farms (villae rusticae) is noteworthy, however, and largely precludes the possibility of site continuity between the late Iron Age and the Roman Empire.
There are exceptions to this rule, notably the partially excavated villa rustica at Messen (Kt.Solothurn) and the farm at Morat/Murten (Kt. Fribourg). Messen's origins seem to have lain with a mid 1st century BC, timber, post building with whitewashed clay walls and enclosure ditches. Morat/Murten produced traces of structures, pits and a cremation, all of which also suggest occupation in the mid 1st century BC. The most impressive current evidence for settlement continuity in Switzerland, however, are features beneath the Roman villa of "Parc de La Grange" in Geneva (Kt. Genève), although this is technically part of Allobrogan territory (Gallia Narbonensis) and so lay just outside the limits of an Upper German study area. Along with several enclosure ditches, which date back to the 2nd century BC, a sequence of three timber post buildings/cill-beam structures have been identified, with simple rectangular ground plans and no discernible internal divisions. They existed from the mid 1st century BC onwards and final alterations took place between 10 BC and 10 AD.
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At other villa sites the evidence is limited
to the presence of Iron Age artefacts: mostly small finds such as pottery,
whose date is complicated by the longevity of the indigenous traditions of
shapes and production, which lasted well into the early Roman period. It is
thus hard to decide whether a multangular ditch under the main building of
the villa rustica of Möhlin (Kt.Aargau), whose fill produced late LaTène finds, was really pre-Roman or already early Roman, especially as the timber
buildings of the first securely identifiable Roman settlement were apparently
aligned on the ditch.
A case for limited continuation of indigenous building traditions at the start of the Roman occupation can be made for the first phase of the villa of Laufen-Müschag (Kt.Bern). The almost rectangular timber post structure, which was built around 14/20 AD, apparently had wattle and daub walling with clay in-fill and a thatch or shingle roof. Its reconstructed internal division, which was accessed by two double doors, currently has no parallels among the main buildings of fully Roman farms although it is associated with a drain, lined with limestone blocks, which runs to the north-east.
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The four roomed house apparently served as a residence for people whose initial sources of income must have included mining and processing the local Iron ore. The old timber building, and a 12 post ancillary building which may have been associated with it, were systematically demolished c. 66/70 AD, possibly just before the completion of the first phase of a new stone main building, whose U-shaped portico intersected the earlier structure.
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In as much as the limited state of current research permits such conclusions, it would seem that settlement continuity was equally rare in the territories of the Sequani and Lingones. Possible links to the late Iron Age are usually predicated on pottery evidence, as in the case of the large villa of Lux (Dèp. Côte-d'Or / F), whose origins may date back to the LaTène III period, but no securely datable buildings of this era have yet been identified. Some villas, such as Pont-de-Poitte (Dèp. Jura / F) and Chassey-Lès-Montbozon (Haute Marne / F) may have been founded in the early Augustan period but, again, the extent to which such sites can be considered as the direct successors of the numerous, but largely unexplored, indigenous farms, whose immediate neighbours they often are, remains speculative, if occasionally discussed.
Apart from the few sites with signs of settlement continuity from the late Latène period, a general trend towards the systematic development of Helvetian and Rauracan territory with villae rusticae (i.e. agricultural enterprises) only developed during the first third of the 1st century AD. The fact that this coincides with the establishment of the legionary fortress at Windisch/Vindonissa (Kt.Aargau) in 16/17 AD raises the possibility of a causal link in which the rural development was triggered by the raised demand caused by the permanent military presence. Nothing in the first phase of settlement points to a special relationship with the military, however, or even to a concentration of farms in the Windisch area, as one might have expected.
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By the mid 1st century AD, there was still no noticeable change in site distribution and an apparent concentration of settlements in northern Switzerland probably reflects current publication levels rather than historical reality.
During the second half of the 1st century, a further intensification of the settlement pattern can be observed, which is again most noticeable in northern Switzerland. The growth in the number of farms was now particularly marked in the hinterland of the Windisch (Kt.Aargau) legionary base, despite its being almost ignored hitherto. The current state of research would also point to an expansion of the ‘villa landscape’ into the south-eastern Mittelland (central Switzerland) and along the foothills of the Alps. These are topographically less favourable as settlement areas and there is a particularly remote example in the villa of Alpnach (Kt.Obwalden).
By comparison with the waves of settlement over the preceding period, the 2nd century saw a marked drop in the number of newly established villas in the study area, many of which were once again concentrated in northern Switzerland.
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Most of the finds from villas in the territory of the Sequani and Lingones have only been published in summary fashion but, here too, at least amongst the better-dated sites, a relatively strong surge of foundations can be seen from as early as the first half of the 1st century. Indeed, in some cases, as outlined above, its origins seem to go back to the Augustan period. Thereafter, however, only occasional foundations are known from the mid to late 1st century, albeit the start dates for most of the villas for which any chronological information at all is available, cannot be refined more closely than that they do date to this century. Almost no sites are known with potential 2nd century foundation dates.
Despite large gaps in our knowledge, we might assume that early 1st century villas in Helvetian and Sequani territory were initially constructed of timber. In some cases, e.g. Wetzikon-Kempten (Kt.Zürich) (founded 50/70AD), the structures could then remain in use into the middle years of the century but, elsewhere, stone construction had come to dominate by this time, and older timber buildings were increasingly being replaced in stone. Such conversions naturally focused on the main building, while the ancillary buildings and flimsy stables frequently continued to use timber. Indeed they were occasionally still being built/rebuilt in this material. A case in point is a timber secondary building with a possible residential function at Aeschi (Kt. Solothurn), which was originally built in the mid 1st century, and only converted to stone at the beginning of the 2nd.
Any clear-cut differentiation between timber and stone construction must, anyway, be regarded with a degree of scepticism. Because, as many of the archaeological remains survive no higher than the bottommost foundation levels, it is often impossible to decide whether the walls that rested on them were of massive, fully stone construction, or just timber-framed structures on stone dwarf walls. That said, there are a few cases where a firm identification is possible: an example being the main building at Alpnach (Kt. Obwalden), founded c. 90/100 AD, where destruction deposits from its initial phase clearly show timber-framed construction.
One peculiar feature of settlement development in the Swiss Mittelland is the initial absence of sites in the area around Windisch and its subsequent rapid development with villas during the second half of the 1st century. It remains unclear, however, whether this, and the contemporary development of topographically less favoured areas, was the results of a planned and carefully managed settlement programme. A further regional phenomenon is a concentration of military brick stamps on villa sites in northern Switzerland, which remains unparalleled in either the German provinces or Raetia.
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The most commonly found stamps belonged to the legions stationed at Windisch-Vindonissa: i.e. Legio XXI Rapax, from 45/46-69 AD, and then XI Claudia, from 70-101. In the second half of the 1st century, the bricks were used largely in the rebuilding of older sites, e.g. the villas of Gränichen (Kt. Aargau), Neftenbach (Kt. Zürich), Triengen (Kt. Luzern) and Winkel-Seeb (Kt. Zürich), but they also appear in new foundations. Most sites only produce stamps in relatively small numbers: in the order of 1-10. The villa of Triengen (Kt.Luzern) is thus unusual in that it has so far yielded at least 258 bricks with legionary stamps. Yet even such a small and out-of-the-way site as Alpnach (Kt.Obwalden) had 52 Windisch legionary bricks.
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There, thus, appears to have been a link to the military in the supply of building materials to civilian rural settlements, which might hint at so far undefined relationships between the army and the villa occupants. It is possible, for example, that the latter were tenants of military property, perhaps territorium legionis. Nor can it be ruled out that we are seeing a government-led rural development programme in which the military played a supporting role by providing private villa owners with materials, possibly on favourable terms. Some of the production sites, i.e. the brickworks, apparently lay between Hunzenschwil and Rupperswil, east of Aarau (Kt.Aargau) and even new 2nd century foundations, such as the villas at Döttingen (Kt. Aargau) and Koblenz (Kt. Aargau) used such bricks, apparently for the first time.
While the number of new villa foundations was small in the 2nd century, this in no way means that the period left no trace amongst the rural Helvetii and Rauraci. Apart from the change from timber to stone, which continued into the second half of the century (e.g. the main building at Kallnach (Kt.Bern)), there is plentiful evidence for expansion and redevelopment through the period. This is most commonly seen in extensions to the main buildings, along with an increase in the quality of internal fixtures and fittings, including the provision of new mosaic floors, marble veneers and wall paintings. By now, at the latest, we also see a concentration of villas with palatial main buildings developing between the Neusiedler-See and Lac Leman, and these show marked higher living standards by comparison to northern Switzerland.
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The proximity of these sites to a number of important centres was probably significant in this context, for example the Helvetian civitas capital at Avenches/Colonia Aventicum (Kt. Vaud), Nyon/Colonia Iulia Equestris (Kt. Vaud), the large vicus at Lausanne/Lousonna (Kt.Vaud) and the civitas capital of the Allobrogi at Geneva/Genava (Kt. Genève) on the western end of Lac Leman.
Our knowledge of the villas’ early phases still remains full of gaps and the settlements’ original start dates often have to be deduced from small finds, especially pottery. Likewise, we are hampered by the limited methodology used in older excavations, some of which date back to the 18th and 19th centuries. Excavations have often only covered parts of the farmyard and adverse soil conditions have made it difficult to see whether easily recognisable stone buildings were preceded by timber phases in Switzerland, and thus mirror the situation elsewhere. As a result, such features are known only rarely, but they have come to light at:
- Buchs (Kt. Zürich).
- Dietikon (Kt. Zürich).
- Laufen (Kt. Bern).
- Le Landeron (Kt. Neuchâtel).
- Möhlin (Kt. Aargau).
- Morrens (Kt. Vaud).
- Neftenbach (Kt. Zürich).
- Triengen (Kt. Luzern).
- Vallon (Kt. Fribourg).
- Winkel-Seeb (Kt. Zürich).
Usually, the surviving features include sections of wall slots or postholes from timber buildings, and sometimes parts of a farm’s enclosure ditch. With the exception of villas such as Laufen (Kt.Bern), the residential buildings were usually of cill-beam construction, whilst farm buildings are also known to have used posts.
The reconstruction of the villa at Vallon (Kt.Fribourg), which was built at the beginning of the 1st century AD, shows that such cill-beam houses were hard to distinguish from stone buildings, once their timber framing had been plastered.
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Sadly, the remains of the sites listed above are all too fragmentary to allow the reconstruction of a complete early farm and, under those circumstances, the best available impression derives from features seen at the villa of Neftenbach (Kt.Zuerich). Here, the first main house was built around 30AD, inside the area of a later stone built villa, and its orientation was copied by all its later successors. It was a rectangular cill-beam structure, with wattle-and-daub in-fills and apparently completely plastered walls. The remains of roof tiles and the presence of eaves drips along the two narrow sides, suggest a hipped roof, possibly covered with shingles. The front and one of the narrow sides had porticos. Inside, two equal sized rooms were identified, one of which preserved fragments of wall painting. Interestingly, a small slot for a fence or hedge (double in some stretches), which approached the main house at right angles, appears to have continued the dividing line between these rooms and this may be the first hint that both the main building and the farmyard as a whole were divided into a working section (pars rustica) and a residential area (pars domestica). Northeast of the main building, inside the hypothetical pars rustica, a simple post-built ancillary building was excavated, whose function seems to have been economic, and the open area between the two was at least partially gravelled. The water supply was provided via a timber pipe, which tapped spring water at a well house and led it to the northwest corner of the main house. A second water pipe was found close to the ancillary building.
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Indications of a farm enclosure are only known from phase 2 onwards. It took the form of a small hedge or fence slot, surrounding a rectangular area, and slots and posts suggest the existence of a gate. The beginning of this phase was marked by the destruction of the main house by fire, and its apparently immediate replacement. The new building lay slightly further to the west and was once again a plastered and painted timber framed structure. The cill-beams no longer sat directly on the soil, however, but were supported on low dwarf walls. The ground plan, fronted by a portico with two protruding corner rooms, was already that of the later winged corridor-villa. This is a common type amongst stone residential buildings on villas all over the north-western provinces and discontinued the supposed accommodation of residential and service functions under a single roof that was seen in phase 1. A gravel path with flanking ditches led directly to the front of the main building and gave access to the whole of the fairly large farm area via possible branches. There were five, post-built ancillary buildings, but their distribution does not appear to conform to any discernible pattern. There is also no indication of continued subdivision of the farmyard, but a total of nine cremations, found close to the enclosure, can be attributed to this period. The settlement’s water supply continued to be provided by the timber well house and piping of the preceding period, which was indeed extended, but a sewer, which now ran from the main building, might suggest an additional water supply. During the course of the second timber phase, the first stone building on the site, a free-standing bath block, was constructed, northwest of the main house, and a larger scale redevelopment of the villa in stone began in the 80s.
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A villa’s stone phases usually give us the best impression of its composition and structure, although even here comparatively little is yet known about their dimensions. The main house frequently stands out because of its associated masses of stone debris, whilst the robustly constructed bathhouse is often better preserved. As a result, either or both may be recognised and targeted by partial excavations. The flimsier ancillary buildings thus tend to be far less well understood. Large-scale, research-led area excavations on villas, such as those at Orbe (Kt.Vaud), remain the exception and it is more common for the size of the farmyard to be established by digging small trial trenches in the vicinity of known structures, or just by analysing the topography.
Two basic patterns of villa design can be distinguished in the north-western provinces, especially with regards to their component structures:
a) ‘Streuhof’ plan
b) Axial plan
With ‘Streuhof’ plans, the main house and ancillary buildings are distributed over the farmyard in such a way that no meaningful layout concept is detectable. There is little evidence for axiality within the complex, or for a clear separation between the pars urbana and pars rustica (i.e the residential and farming areas). This need not preclude the existence of a more or less rectangular enclosure, but even this cannot be found in all cases.
Within the study region ‘Streuhöfe’ are usually small to medium sized farms and examples include:
- Alpnach (Kt. Obwalden).
- Boécourt (Kt. Jura).
- Ferpicloz (Kt. Fribourg).
- Hüttwilen (Kt. Thurgau).
- Langendorf (Kt. Solothurn).
- Laufen (Kt. Bern).
- Maisprach (Kt. Basel-Land).
- Olten, "Im Grund" (Kt. Solothurn).
- Uetendorf (Kt. Bern).
- Wiedlisbach (Kt. Bern).
- Zurzach(?) (Kt. Aargau).
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The outstanding examples of this villa type in the area of the Sequani and Lingones, are the villas of Tavaux (Dép. Jura / F) and, perhaps, Selongey (Dép. Côte-d'Or / F).
Axial designs were oriented on the pars urbana, which was itself centred on the main residence. Its showpiece façade provided the point on which the lines of most of the buildings, enclosure walls and the main access roads were aligned. This resulted in a certain level of symmetry amongst the pars rustica structures, although this does not necessarily mean that every building had its mirror image. One can often differentiate between designs based on the long axis, where the pars urbana was attached to the narrow side of a more or less rectangular courtyard, and short axis designs, where the residential area can be found along one of the long sides. One characteristic is a strict separation of the residence from the pars rustica, and this was frequently reinforced by walls or screening buildings. Moreover, the main residence did not necessarily lie on the same alignment as the farm buildings. It was often slanted away slightly from the farm’s main axis. Axial arrangements predominated in the study region and examples include i.a:
- Biberist (Kt. Solothurn).
- Buchs (Kt. Zürich).
- Colombier (Kt. Neuchâtel).
- Dällikon (Kt. Zürich).
- Dietikon (Kt. Zürich).
- Liestal (Kt. Basel-Land).
- Neftenbach (Kt. Zürich).
- Oberentfelden (Kt. Aargau).
- Orbe (Kt. Vaud).
- Vicques (Kt. Jura).
- Winkel-Seeb (Kt. Zürich).
- Yvonand (Kt. Vaud).
These are all large farms (in terms of area covered)
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Similar villas can be found in the territory of the Sequani, for example at Vitreux (Dép. Jura / F), and amongst the Lingones, as at Lux (Dép. Côte-d'Or / F).
These apparent differences in the basic design of the settlements grouped together here as villas, or ‘villae rusticae’, are reflected equally in both their size and architecture. At the bottom of the scale we find farms, such as Boécourt (Kt. Jura), which had a simple residence, one or two ancillary buildings and a farmyard of up to 3ha and which could probably have been worked by a family-sized group.
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Medium sized villas would have demanded much higher staff levels, for example the 4.5ha farm of Langendorf (Kt. Solothurn), which sports a further residential building, as well as its main residence and ancillary buildings. Estimates suggest a population of c. 50 people, including the family of the landowner or tenant, dependent families and/or agricultural labourers (cf. amongst others Schucany 1999, 92).
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The difference between these sites and the larger estates was probably fluid and, in all likelihood, it was related, above all, to the number of dependents and the concomitant social stratification within the farm. This could be expressed in an increasing separation between the impressively developed residence of the estate owner, the pars urbana, and the farm itself, the pars rustica. The latter contained both farm buildings in the strict sense, and ancillary buildings with residential quarters, and the latter could match the size and architecture of smaller villas’ main houses. The population of the villa at Biberist (Kt.Solothurn), which had an area of c. 5.5 ha, has been estimated at c. 120.
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We also need to consider the actual built area, i.e. the capacity of the buildings, and it is perfectly conceivable that Orbe (Kt.Vaud), the villa with the largest farmyard currently known in Helvetian territory (at 400 x 400m (16ha)), housed several hundred people. It is not without reason, therefore, that similar sites, such as the villa at Lux (Dép. Côte-d'Or / F), in the area of the Lingones, have occasionally been described as ‘vici’. For they can indeed resemble such settlements, at least with regard to their infrastructure, which apart from the residential buildings contained, workshops, stables and sanctuaries.
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The ‘basilican’ type refers to houses that contained a long rectangular core, often constructed as a three aisled hall. The most impressive Swiss example is the mid 1st century main house at Hölstein (Kt. Basel-Land). But even impressive residences, such as the much-extended main building at Winkel-Seeb (Kt.Zürich), appear to have developed from a basilican plan with porticos, which can first be identified in an early stone phase of the mid 1st century.
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The "Zentralhof" type refers to structures, whose rooms were arranged in strip-like wings around a central courtyard. The alternative term ‘Peristyle-villa’ is sometimes used, although it remains debateable whether these were really open courtyards or whether some, at least, may have been central halls. Swiss examples are known i.a. from Bennwil (Kt. Basel-Land) and Triengen (Kt. Luzern) (n.b: while these villas do have a central courtyard, they are substantially smaller than the ‘courtyard villas’ of Britain and should not be confused with them).
The most common architectural type encountered in Helvetian and Rauracan main buildings are the so-called ‘portico-villas’ or ‘corridor-villas’, whose rooms were mostly accessible via an ostentatious portico at the front of the building. On sloping ground, in particular, these were frequently reached by a central perron (freestanding staircase) and they were commonly underpinned by a covered walk (crypto-portico).
The terms "portico-villa" or "corridor-villa" cover several sub-groups. At its most simple, the portico across the front of the building sometimes turned to cover its narrow sides as well. This arrangement can be found at large houses, such as the third (probably) extension of the villa at Meikirch (Kt.Bern) (dated c. 200 AD). It is equally common on smaller sites, however, including (i.a.) the first (Flavian) main building at Orbe (Kt. Vaud), and both stone house periods at Schupfart (Kr. Aargau): although the latter site only had the corner room added to its portico during the second period.
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The most common variant in the study area is the so-called ‘winged corridor-villa’. Here the portico is set back between two corner rooms which project from the rest of the house, although there is a rarer type with only one protrusion. This type can be seen at smaller sites, such as Bellikon (Kt.Aargau), Grenchen (Kt.Solothurn), Laufen (Kt.Bern) and Lengnau (Kt. Aargau), as well as at palatial villas such as Buchs (Kt. Zürich) and Worb (Kt. Bern). The porticos usually run straight but, depending on the degree to which the corner rooms project, they can also turn to form a U-shape.
U-shaped porticos are more characteristic of the third variety of winged corridor-villas, which is largely restricted to large sites. Here, the corner rooms are extended to form proper wings, so that in combination with the villa’s main body, a tripartite corridor house is created. Not uncommonly the ends of the wings were linked by a further portico, or attach themselves to the walls of the villa rustica (be it the dividing wall or the estate enclosure wall). This creates a courtyard in front of the villa’s main façade (thus explaining the English term ‘courtyard villa’ for this type, quite different from the ‘Zentralhof’ type discussed above).
The villa of Orbe (Kt.Vaud) has an unusual architectural plan, in which the courtyard was divided in two by a double central portico. One was framed by Tuscan columns, the other by Corinthian, and each of the resulting courtyards had a decorative fountain at its centre.
As suggested by the preceding examples, some villas show a remarkable level of luxury in their interior decoration. This is by no means restricted to the palatial sites, and, with certain gradations, the main buildings of Helvetian and Rauracan villas tend to be fairly sumptuously equipped by comparison with other parts of the German and Raetian provinces. For example, in addition to mono or polychrome painted walls, figural wall paintings are found, not just at large residences, such as Buchs (Kt. Zürich) and Meikirch (Kt. Bern), but also at smaller sites, such as Wetzikon-Kempten (Kt. Zürich), Bellikon (Kt. Aargau) and Hölstein (Kt. Basel-Land). Moreover, these are not necessarily ‘provincial’ in design, as is documented by wall decorations in the Third Pompeian style from the villas of Commugny (Kt. Vaud) and Yvonand (Kt. Vaud).
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In addition to wall paintings, quite a few sites, e.g. Buchs (Kt.Zürich), have provided evidence for paving stones or wall veneers (including figural relief decorations) in marble or Jura limestone.
Opus sectile wall decorations and floors are occasionally found, as at Buix (Kt. Jura) and Orbe (Kt. Vaud), which join with the numerous mosaics found in Swiss villas to complete an optical impression of the villas’ interior decor.
In all, 49 of the 109 villas found in the Swiss part of Germania Superior have provided evidence for mosaic floors and, if we take into account the poor preservation of some sites and the small scale of many excavations, the original percentage seems likely to have been even higher. The patterns range from geometrical black-and-white mosaics, to colourful floors with numerous figured scenes. So far, however, the surviving mosaics come almost exclusively from later alterations of the later 2nd and early 3rd centuries. In larger residences mosaics can be found in reception rooms, living quarters and porticoes whilst, at the smaller sites, they appear to be concentrated in the bath suite. The same phenomenon applies equally clearly to wall decorations, and especially to cladding with Jura limestone or marble slabs.
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The baths were sometimes the first stone building on a site and were often also the first to see hypocausted heating systems installed. Indeed, at smaller houses this luxury was normally restricted to the baths, which were themselves often added or inserted later, e.g. Bellikon (Kt. Aargau) oder Hölstein (Kt. Basel-Land). Medium sized and larger villas, by contrast, could have hypocausts in some of the rooms in the living quarters, especially after 2nd century alterations. Helvetian and Rauracan bath buildings could be either stand-alone structures or integrated into the main building, and baths that were initially separate were sometimes linked to the main residence during later extensions, by wings or porticos.
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Integrated baths were rather more common (by a ratio of 3:2), which is hardly surprising given the reduction of work involved in inserting or attaching one or two bathing rooms to an existing house, rather than creating a separate building. In some cases, however, both types are present. At Orbe (Kt.Vaud), for example, a very large bath suite in the later residence replaced the separate baths of its predecessor, whilst at Winkel-Seeb (Kt. Zürich), a separate bath building next to the villa’s east wing coexisted for some time with an integrated bath in the west wing. Further examples are known, i.a. from Buchs (Kt. Zürich), Colombier (Kt. Neuchâtel), Kloten (Kt. Zürich) and Oberweningen (Kt. Zürich) and, in the last two cases, the integrated baths were apparently inserted in later phases to supplement existing detached blocks.
Bath and villa water supplies could be provided by streams, aqueducts or wells. Biberist (Kt. Solothurn) and Dietikon (Kt. Zürich), i.a, had streams crossing the farms, whilst aqueducts are known at Orbe (Kt. Vaud) and Neftenbach (Kt. Zürich). Neftenbach also had a wooden pipeline in its early phases, which supplied water from a nearby spring, and this was apparently later replaced by a 1.5 km long stone conduit.
Deep wells are relatively rare on Helvetian and Rauracan villas. One possible example at Laufen (Kt.Bern), had a stone lining sitting on a rectangular wooden catchment box, 5m below the surface. On the other hand, a pure stone example, built of river cobbles and rounded stones, has been excavated at Winkel-Seeb (Kt.Zürich). Here, the 6m deep well was integrated into a sophisticated well house, which was placed centrally in the pars rustica. It sat in front of the dividing wall to the pars urbana and thus directly in front of the main residence. The surviving remains suggest a tower-like structure, where the water was raised to the upper storey (possibly with mechanical lifting gear) from where a pressurised pipe led water to the house. To achieve this effect, the local topography requires a building over 9m high.
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The same ancillary building was often used as both workshop and living quarters, as is demonstrated by three farm buildings found side-by-side along the north-eastern enclosure wall at Dietikon (Kt.Zürich). Each of these (10-10.5 x 9m) single storied stone buildings originally had a post-built internal division that was later replaced by a light wall on shallow foundations. Postholes, slots and slight foundations also suggest fronting porticoes and further attached or freestanding structures. In the middle of the three (A), normal domestic refuse from pits and levelling layers, plus a neonatal burial just outside, suggest living quarters. But metalworking tools, iron ingots, moulds, crucibles and a further (smithing?) hearth, found in and around the house, imply that iron and copper-alloy working also took place. It is not clear if this workshop/residence belonged together with the neighbouring building to the north (L), but the finds from the latter would suggest that it served solely as a smithy.
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To the south of building A, building B was again subdivided into a larger (apparently residential) room with a central fireplace, and a narrower workshop area with a separate external entrance. The entrance was blocked by a smoke house in a later phase, whilst the rear part of the room, which was now separated, received a mortar floor below which two neonatal burials were found. In the northwest corner, a flimsily built extension probably served as a toolshed or wagon shelter, and a much smaller shed on the southeast side had a pig buried just metres away from it. Finds of carpentry and metalworking tools, horse harness and wagon fittings underline the residents’ occupations as craftsmen and stockmen, but other finds illustrate their private lives. These include coins, pottery fragments, furniture, box fittings, a chest fitting, a roasting spit, melon beads, a brooch, a ring, a mirror, toiletry equipment, a spindle whorl and a bronze statue base with the remains of soldering. Similar evidence for mixed usage is known from other buildings with similar ground plans at Dietikon (Kt. Zürich), along with single room structures along the enclosure wall at Neftenbach (Kt. Zürich). The same combined usage is also known from more complex workshop and residential buildings. For example, the large smokehouse and pottery kiln in Building B at Winkel-Seeb (K. Zürich) could be mentioned, or the bronze-casting pit in the large house and courtyard structure 60 at Neftenbach (Kt. Zürich). Other evidence for crafts, apart from normal metalworking, includes iron ore processing, as at Laufen (Kt.Bern) and, more frequently, the production of coarseware, bricks and tiles. Tile kilns were in use at Triengen (Kt. Luzern), Vicques (Kt. Jura) and possibly even Laufen (Kt. Bern). The kiln at the latter site is securely identified, as is that at Obfelden (Kt. Zürich), whilst at Vallon (Kt. Fribourg) there is some evidence for the exploitation of local potting-clay pits. Such production sometimes exceeded the mere provision of the villa’s own needs. For example, pottery from the abovementioned workshop at Winkel-Seeb (Kt. Zürich) has also been found on others sites in the area.
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The villas’ agricultural production is much harder to identify than these obvious craft activities and, in contrast to agricultural tools, harness fragments for draft animals and the remains of butchering amongst the finds assemblages, a farm building’s architectural remains only rarely offer secure indications of its use.
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Four corn driers were found in a single building (H) at Dietikon (Kt.Zürich), and it is also worth mentioning a stone, hall-like structure at Biberist (Kt.Solothurn), whose floor was raised on pillars to improve air circulation and which was thus, without doubt, a granary. This had residential structures and workshops in its vicinity, along with further remains, which might represent cattle pens or light stables/animal sheds, and so it is possible to reconstruct a small part of the villa with some confidence.
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The exact purpose of most hall-like structures (e.g. buildings C and D in the pars rustica of Winkel-Seeb, and an ancillary building at Lauffen (Kt.Bern)), remains unresolved. Depending on the width of their gates they are usually assumed to be barns, stables, byres or wagon sheds.
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A partially excavated stone building at Dällikon (Kt.Zürich) produced finds indicative of a sanctuary: including globular bowls, several incense burners and a fragment of figural lamp. Elsewhere, it is primarily the ground plan, coupled to a lack finds whose position and composition would be thought typical for residential quarters or workshops, which suggests such an interpretation. The central room of one building at Orbe (Kt.Vaud) had an apse in the narrow wall facing the entrance, along with couch foundations along the long walls: both of which are clear signs of a mithraeum.
By contrast, the Neftenbach (Kt.Zürich) structure is square with a central foundation for a possible cult statue, whilst the sanctuary at Yvonand (Kt.Vaud) and two securely identified ritual buildings in the pars rustica at Dietikon (Kt.Zürich) had the central cella and rectangular portico, typical of Gallo-Roman temples. Moreover, in the 3rd century, what may originally have been a small podium temple was located in the pars urbana at Dietikon, a short distance from the front of the main building. There were also small chapel-like ancillary structures accompanying both one of the Dietikon temples (G) and the sanctuary at Yvonand (Kt. Vaud).
The remains of a possible source sanctuary, including the springhead, a bathing pool, a house altar and the remains of columns, were found to the west of the main building at Liestal (Kt.Basel-Land) and, apart from the mithraeum at Orbe (Kt.Vaud), this tentative identification provides the only pointer to the cults practised in villa owned sanctuaries, and their regional importance. It is noteworthy, however, that the largest temple (G) at Dietikon (Kt.Zürich) was rebuilt after the villa’s large-scale destruction during the Germanic invasions of the middle and third quarter of the 3rd century. It then continued in use until the mid 4th century, whilst the main building and most of the other villa structures lay in ruins. It is even possible that limited continuation of some of the pars rustica ancillary buildings and a few rooms within the ruins of the main house, might be linked to the continuance of cult rituals, which may have been of regional importance. Alternatively, it is possible that former residents of the pars rustica might have continued the villa’s farming activity, if on a much-reduced scale.
One characteristic of villas in the north-western provinces was an enclosure fence, hedge, ditch or wall around the farmyard buildings. Relatively little is yet known about such enclosures on the small to medium sized villas of Helvetian and Rauracan territory: possibly thanks to incomplete research on the sites. We do know of lengths of palisade at Laufen (Kt Bern), however. These had stone-choked posts set in a trench, and the alignment of the known sections suggests a rectangular enclosure. Elsewhere, ditched enclosures are known, for example at the small villa of Boécourt (Kt.Jura) and the medium-sized site at Triengen (Kt. Luzern). In both cases these were later replaced by stone walls, and similar walls have been found at other small villas. In as much as our incomplete understanding of such walls allows an opinion, these enclosures just formed boundaries around the whole farmyard, with no internal divisions between the residential and agricultural parts of the site. The large axial villas may have operated differently, however. As with the previous examples, the boundaries at Buchs (Kt. Zürich), Dietikon (Kt. Zürich) and Neftenbach (Kt. Zürich) began as ditches or double gullies. These were later replaced by walls but, as well as just enclosing a rectangle, an internal dividing wall then separated the site into a pars rustica and a pars urbana. The farmyard could be either attached to the pars urbana, as at Neftenbach (Kt.Zürich) and Winkel-Seeb (Kt. Zürich) or, as at Orbe(Kt.Vaud) and perhaps Biberist (Kt. Solothurn), it could surround the residential area on more than one side. Access to both parts of the villa was sometimes gained via impressive gates, or even freestanding gatehouses: as is the case with the pars urbana at Neftenbach (Kt. Zürich) and the farmyard at Vicques (Kt.Jura).
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The main house was usually a largely freestanding structure, but many other buildings (especially in the pars rustica) were integrated in such a way that the enclosure wall formed one of their own walls. Such buildings can be found both inside the wall, as at Dietikon (Kt. Zürich ) and Oberentfelden (Kt. Aargau), or outside it and some, as at Liestal (Kt.Basel-Land) and Yvonand (Kt.Vaud), could even straddle it.
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It is not known whether additional, outer boundaries existed in these cases, possibly formed by hedges or the like. But sites such as Neftenbach (Kt.Zürich) and Vicques (Kt.Jura) have produced walled annexes, and so demonstrate that further boundaries and enclosures can be expected outside a villa’s core area.
Graves are also known from inside the farm enclosure at Neftenbach (Kt.Zürich) and, during its second timber phase (mid 80s of the 1st century AD), more dead were buried in three different locations close by. To judge from the eight simple cremations, however, these are unlikely to have been members of the owners’ family and they were more probably dependent labourers. The two south-eastern groups show some reference to the ancillary buildings, but the north-western group is well removed from any known structure. The contemporaneity of the graves of this group, and suggestions of a double burial, raises the possibility that the deceased may have fallen victim to disease. Burials within villa walled enclosures remain rare, however, apart from these exceptional cases and, slightly more common instances of infant burial, such as those at Dietikon (Kt.Zürich) and Neftenbach (Kt.Zürich). Sadly, external graves have also only rarely been documented, and examples such as a 2nd/3rd century inhumation found 1200m from the main residence at Worb (Kt. Bern) raise the question of how far even these might be related to the villa. Further indications of external cemeteries are known i.a. from Obfelden (Kt. Zürich) and Orbe (Kt.Vaud), and may have continued into the early Middle Ages.
Christian Miks
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The northern and central parts of the province of Germania Superior were dominated by the extensive ranges of the German and French central hill country, including the Rheinischen Schiefergebirges (consisting of the Südeifel, Hunsrück, Rheinischer Westerwald and Taunus), the Pfälzer Wald, the Vosges, the Odenwald, Black Forest and the Swabian Alb. These are split by numerous river valleys, i.a the Rhine, the Moselle, the Nahe, the Glan and, beyond the Rhine, the Main, Neckar, Enz and the Danube. Apart from the higher parts of the river valleys, a series of other natural settlement areas stands out, amongst them the Neuwieder Becken with Pellenz, the Mayener Maifeld, the Wetterau, the hills of Rheinhessen, the Kraichgau and the Neckar basin. All have very fertile soils and are thus excellent starting points for agriculture. The higher parts of the hills, with their poorer soils, were much less suited to farming and were thus less densely settled in the Roman period, or even almost completely avoided. In the following pages, the area on the left bank of the Rhine between the Vinxtbach (between Andernach and Bad Breisig), the province’s northern boundary, and the Südpfalz in the south, plus the area east of the Rhine (the right bank and the Limes hinterland) between the lower Neckar and the Hochrhein, will be treated as case studies for the region.
In the period before the Gallic Wars (58-51BC) the landscapes just described were exclusively settled by Celtic tribes and this is not necessarily contradicted by Julius Caesar’s statement that the Rhine formed the boundary between Gauls and Germans (De bello Gallico I 1, 1-4), as the latter had geopolitical motives. His "Commentarii de bello Gallico" mention remaining Celtic groups on the right bank of the Rhine (De bello Gallico VI 24, 1-3), but it seems that the area west of the Inn and east of the Odenwald may have been largely evacuated just before, or at the start of the War. This is supported by the fact that most settlements and cemeteries stop during the first half of the 1st century (LaTène D1), with the exception of the area north of the Main, which will not be considered here. One of the main reasons behind the abandonment was apparently constant pressure from Elbgermanic tribes from the end of the 2nd century BC. One of the most significant of these incursions was the historically attested occupation attempt by the Suebian Ariovist, between 72 and 58 BC, whose resulting waves of population movement finally initiated the Gallic Wars. The Vangiones, Nemetes and Triboci were apparently part of this incursion, unless we are faced with a much later interpolation into the text (De bello Gallico I 51,2). These tribes were able to settle permanently in Alsace, despites Ariovistus’ defeat near Mulhouse (Alsace) in 58 BC. The exact position of these tribes remains debateable, however, until their controlled settlement by Rome along the left bank of the Rhine from Worms south into Alsace. Even in the early 1st century further re-settlements of Suebian groups are recorded, who may have left Marbodus’ kingdom in Bohemia and settled south of the Main around Starkenburg, along the lower Neckar and around Diersheim (Ortenaukreis/ BW). There is no indication of a large scale resettlement of the abandoned area east of the Rhine before the establishment of Roman rule in the area of the later province, as is apparently confirmed by a statement of P. Cornelius Tacitus (Germania 29): "I do not want to count those people amongst the German tribes, who cultivated the agri decumates, even though they are settling beyond the Rhine and Danube; Gallic riff-raff and desperados claimed this debated area."
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Celtic (red) and Germanic
(blue) tribal territories/groups between the Mittel- and Hochrhein around
the mid 1st century BC
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Celtic (red) and Germanic
(blue) tribal territories/ groups between the Mittel and Hochrhein in
the 1st century AD
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The situation on the left (western) bank of the Rhine is very different.
The north belonged to the territory of the Treverans who, according to their
material remains, were Celtic-Gallic, and whose territory during the Gallic
Wars included the Ardennes, the Eifel and Hunsrück, and continued north between the Rhein and Maas. Their boundary with the Celtic
Mediomatrici in the south probably ran through Rheinhessen and the Nordpfalz
respectively. The territory of the latter tribe, which stretched west to include
Verdun, originally stopped at the Rhine in the east and bordered the territory
of the Rauraci, Sequani and Leucae in the southeast and south. The establishment
of the military district of Germania Superior at the beginning of the Imperial
period led to the cutting off of the Rhine zone from the core territories of
the Treveri and Mediomatrici, who remained civitates of Gallia Belgica in slightly adjusted form. It is not clear if this division
reflected existing settlement patterns. In the area around Mainz the presence
of the Caerates and Aresaces, who may have been septs of the Treverans, allowed
for possible settlement continuities from the Pre-Roman Iron Age into the Roman
period, while the resettlement of the Vangiones, Nemetes and the Triboki on
the former territory of the Mediomatrici no doubt created a clear break, although,
in the latter case this may ultimately have been caused by the lack of a significant
pre-existing population.
Apart from the oppida, and smaller defended banked enclosures (Ringwallanlagen) whose occupation can stretch into LaTène D2 at reduced levels, all statements concerning the rural population during the 1st century BC (LaTène D1-2) are based on the results from the cemeteries on the left bank of the Rhine, which are have been studied to a greater or lesser extent. Sadly, these can only rarely be associated with known settlement sites. Settlement sites are known, but our current knowledge is largely derived from field walking finds and pit fills found on very limited excavations, and offers little insight into the structure and architecture of the sites. Two of the few exceptions are post-built buildings with wattle walls, found beneath the main residence of the villa "Im Brasil" near Mayen (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP), and a settlement in Westheim (Kr. Germersheim / RLP), which was defended with a rectangular ditch and a timber and earth rampart.
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Late Celtic to early
Roman settlement at Westheim
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Pre-Roman post-built
structure below the main residence of the villa "Im Brasil" near Mayen
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The Westheim settlement contained at least five internal buildings and one more outside the defences. These were post-built with nine, twelve or more posts in rectangular ground plans. Occasional doubts have been raised over the late LaTène date assigned to this unusual site, which was found during old excavations, but the buildings correspond closely to late Iron Age structures known elsewhere (e.g. those found in Treveran territory). According to the small finds and the single period structures, the Westheim settlement did not last long after its foundation in the second half of the 1st century AD (LaTène D"). It was abandoned in the late Augustan/ early Tiberian period and no links could be established between it and the small farm, which was built on the site around 70AD. Its finds clearly suggest that the site was inhabited by a Gallo-Celtic population, and it lies on the fringes of an area, where an increased presence of Elbgermanic settlers should be expected from mid-Augustan times. Overall there appears to have been a marked drop in population in the Pfalz (or rather in the area east of the Blies) during the late LaTène period, which was only compensated through the immigration of Germanic groups from the turn of the millennium. Features with Elbgermanic material can often be found in the immediate neighbourhood of later villas, which might suggest possible settlement continuity. In addition to burials, this also occasionally includes settlement remains, which may however consist of little more than occasional post and rubbish pits, as at the villa of Neustadt-Mußbach (Kr. Neustadt a. d. Weinstraße / RLP), which was founded c. 20/30AD, and no buildings can yet be identified or reconstructed. North of the Pfalz the Germanic elements become rarer on cemetery and settlement sites, in favour of indigenous Celtic elements, which already make up the majority at Rheinhessen. Accordingly, we sometimes find evidence of late Iron Age activity next to, or in the vicinity of, Roman farmyards, although so far it has not been possible to prove settlement continuities beyond doubt. Examples such as the villa at Mayen (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP), whose timber phase may date back to Augustan times, or the villa "Auf der Klosterheck" in Andernach (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP), which had LaTène period settlement pits and the post holes for an initial timber phase, still provide some of our best evidence.
On the east side of the Rhine (in clear contrast to the situation on the
left bank) no continuities from the original Celtic settlement pattern can
be expected in the Roman period, thanks to massive emigration during LaTène D1. During the second half of the 1st century BC (LaTène D"), partial survival of Celtic groups can only be found on the right bank along
the Hochrhein and the southern Oberrhein valley, where open settlements such
as Breisach-Hochstetten (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW) were abandoned
in favour of new defended sites: here Breisach-Münsterberg. There is, however, no information concerning the appearance of the
area’s contemporary farming settlements. The material culture of the newly
arrived German settlers becomes recognisable on the right bank of the Rhine
from the first half of the 1st century AD: particularly south of the lower
Main, along 
the lower Neckar and in the Ortenau. However, nothing is known about the appearance
of their buildings either, apart from their settlement refuse. The fact that
at least the Neckar-Suebi (Suebi Nicretes), on the lower Neckar, became a civitas
from the 2nd century after the Roman occupation would, though, suggest that
we should expect some continuity of settlement.
One possible example may be the Neckar-Suebian settlement "Ziegelscheuer" in Ladenburg (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW). It was founded in the reign of Claudius and produced the remains of two sunken dwellings. According to the small finds it continued in use at a reduced level, when a villa was built here in the first half of the 2nd century AD. It cannot, however, be established, whether the villa owner and hands originated from the older settlement.
Neckar-Suebian settlement "Ziegelscheuer" in Ladenburg
Even on the left bank of the Rhine, where one might expect it, there is currently no good evidence for the survival or pre-Roman construction techniques in rural settlements. This statement is, however, based on a very thin level of research, or at least publication. Of the mere c. 40 villas, which have been published to a level, that allows a reasonably critical assessment, no site has yielded the ground plans of possible early timber phases, even in the strata in which indigenous traditions are most likely to be encountered. If Westheim (Kr. Germersheim / RLP) is discounted: the settlement that may offer evidence for the survival of LaTène style post-built structures into the 1st century AD, then the finds from the main house of the villa "Im Brasil" in Mayen (Kr. Mayen Koblenz / RLP) are still the most significant starting point for any such consideration of architectural development, although they were found in old excavations. There, an analysis of the wall joints led the excavator (F.Oelmann) to suggest that the stone winged-corridor villa developed from an earlier rectangular stone core. Oelmann originally interpreted numerous post settings along and parallel to the walls of the hall-like interior, as roof supports, but they might just as easily be parts of an earlier timber phase. The presence of such a phase was even assumed by the excavator, but he was not able to assign any significant features to it. The reconstructed plan of the internal posts is, however, easily comparable with timber residential buildings on southern Lower German villas. The houses there can be interpreted as developments from local late Iron Age post-built structures, which may originally have had strong affinities to timber buildings from the Mittelgebirgsraum (central German hill country), but there may also have been additional influence from northern Gaul during the early Roman period. Characteristically they had a hall-like interior, which still dominated the first stone phase at Mayen. Even disregarding the debateable links between the villa house and the underlying Iron Age building, the Mayen villa might thus have perpetuated traditional Gallic interior design concepts during its timber phases and even its early stone phase. |
Phase III to IV (after Oelmann) of the main residence of the villa "Im Brasil" near Mayen |
Buildings
similar to those of Mayen’s first stone phase (which served residential and
agrarian functions) have been recognised elsewhere in northern Upper Germany,
e.g. Bolanden (Donnersberg-Kr. / RLP), Monreal (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP) and
Enkenbach-Alsenborn (Kr. Kaiserslautern / RLP). These were built in the 2nd
century or even later and had no ancillary buildings. They are thus usually
interpreted as the simplest of rural settlement types, or as cottagers’ houses.
How far the latter might be correct, or if they also have to be considered
as continuations of a traditional Celtic concept of interior design into the
late Roman period, cannot be decided as yet.
Simple combined residential and agrarian buildings from Bolanden, Enkenbach-Alsenborn and Monreal; ground plans
In view of the low number of suitably published and closely dateable villas in the area, any generic statements concerning its settlement history must be treated with caution. On the left bank of the Rhine a few more foundations can be identified, probably of the 1st half of the 1st century AD, in addition to the sites of Westheim (Kr. Germersheim / RLP) and Mayen-"Brasil" (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP), which may have originated in LaTène D2 or the Augustan period at the latest. These new sites were found in the area of Andernach/Koblenz and the Vorderpfalz. The more closely dateable sites were all founded in the reign of Tiberius, or more specifically the years 20-30AD. The neighbouring settlement at Westheim would already have been deserted at this point, or at least in the process of being shut down. A serious treatment of the further history of the left bank of the Rhine, based on securely dated sites, is currently next to impossible. The few new foundations that can safely be attributed to the second half of the century, suggest a preference for the areas close to the Rhine. The results from several villas in the Glan valley (Kr. Kusel / RLP) suggest that a more intensive settlement of the hinterland might have occurred during a period probably not earlier than c. 100AD and into the later 2nd century, but the higher regions of the Hunsrück and Pfälzer Wald remained excluded.
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Farms/villas in the 1st century AD. |
In contrast to the 1st half of the 1st century situation on the left bank, the areas east of the Rhine remained largely free from Roman settlement. The Neckar-Suebian settlement of Ladenburg-"Ziegelscheuer", and similar sites that began in the Claudian period, are relevant to discussions of settlement continuity, but they were not the foundation periods of later villa on the same sites. The southern Oberrhein and Hochrhein appear to differ from this sequence, because true villas were founded on the right bank here from 20-30 AD into the Claudian period, and it is probably no coincidence that this is exactly the area, where Celtic populations survived into the 2nd half of the 1st century AD (LaTène D2). Postulated close links with their neighbours on the opposite bank may have been as important as the establishment of a permanent Roman presence on the Rhine in furthering the early Romanisation of this area, which lay close to military and urban civilian centres. As a result, there were further developmental parallels between the rural settlements on either side of the river. Thus the strong wave of Flavian foundations, which are easily recognisable archaeologically in the Nordschweiz (and particularly around the legionary fortress of Windisch (Kt. Aargau / Schweiz)), is mirrored by the building of numerous new villas along the right bank of the Hochrhein. Villas on both sides of the river used tiles with military brick stamps from the Windisch garrison in this period, and might be interpreted as part of a settlement pattern guided and/or supported by the Roman administration (see Villa rustica in southern Upper Germany), and which took in both banks of the Rhine.
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Farms/villas around 100 AD to the 1st half of the 2nd century AD. |
Around 100AD the first villas emerged on the upper reaches of the Neckar and Danube. Allowing for a certain delay this might reflect relatively early occupation and development of the area around Municipium Arae Flaviae (founded c.72 AD), modern Rottweil (Kr. Rottweil / BW), as a new urban centre, as well as the provision of road links to Windisch (Kt. Aargau / Schweiz) and to Strasbourg (Dép. Bas-Rhin / F) via the Kinzigtal (from as early as 74AD).
In marked contrast, it seems that rural occupation did not start until early Hadrianic times along the middle and lower Neckar, and on the right bank of the northern Upper Rhine valley (with a few doubtful exceptions). A particular wave of settlements along the middle Neckar coincided with the period before or just after the Limes was moved from the river to the outer Miltenberg-Lorch line c. 150AD. It remains a matter of debate, whether the lack of a clear legal framework for justice and property ownership up to that point may have held back development, or whether the lack of a sufficient population base played a role.
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Farms/villas in the mid to second half 2nd century AD. |
As far as it is possible to tell from the few remaining traces, most of the stone villas on both bank of the Rhine had timber predecessors, although they can usually not be made to fit an easily recognisable plan. The earliest rebuildings (or new foundations) in stone apparently date no earlier than the late 1st century AD, even on the left bank. Indeed, examples from Reipoltskirchen (Kr. Kusel / RLP) and the "Annaberg" in Bad Dürkheim (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP) demonstrate that some villas were still built in timber at this time, and even as late as the turn to the 2nd century. This was true for smaller farms as well as larger villa sites and can be shown to continue on the right bank at least during the first half of the 2nd century. As far as we can tell, most conversions to stone started from the mid 2nd century in this region and, in the case of the mid Neckar area villas of Bietigheim-Bissingen (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) and Weinsberg (Kr. Heilbronn / BW), which were founded around 150 AD, this seems to have been delayed until the later second half of the century.
- Andernach (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP).
- Bad Dürkheim (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP); am Annaberg.
- Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP).
- Koblenz (Stadt Koblenz / RLP); Koblenzer-Stadtwald am Remstecken.
- Koblenz (Stadt Koblenz / RLP); Koblenzer-Stadtwald am Schüllerhof.
- Mayen (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP).
- Reipoltskirchen (Kr. Kusel / RLP).
- Wachenheim (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP).
On the right bank of the Rhine the following sites could be mentioned:
- Bietigheim-Bissingen (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Bondorf (Kr. Böblingen / BW).
- Eutingen-Rohrdorf (Kr. Freudenstadt / BW).
- Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW).
- Hirschberg-Großsachsen (Rhein-Neckar-Kreis / BW).
- Ladenburg (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW).
- Laufenburg (Kr. Waldshut / BW).
- Lauffen am Neckar (Kr. Heilbronn / BW).
- Merdingen (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW).
- Oberderdingen-Flehingen/Bauerbach (Kr. Karlsruhe / BW).
- Sachsenheim-Großsachsenheim (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Schwörstadt (Kr. Lörrach / BW).
- Walldorf (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW).
- Weinsberg (Kr. Heilbronn / BW).
- Wurmlingen (Kr. Tuttlingen / BW).
Amongst these, the features from Bondorf (Kr. Böblingen / BW) and Walldorf (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW) offer relatively well preserved sets of early timber phases.
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Timber phase (First
half of the 2nd century AD) of the villa at Bondorf
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The villa at Bondorf was founded at the beginning of the 2nd century and the surviving stone cellar with staircase, along with several wall slots and post pits, document the presence of the former main residence. They do not allow the reconstruction of a complete ground plan, but they do permit us to say that the orientation of the timber building already matched that of the overlying stone structure. At least four rectangular, post-in-trench constructed buildings, to the northwest and east of the main house can be identified as contemporary ancillary buildings. The complex was enclosed by a fence, which in places showed multiple lines, and largely followed the course of the later stone wall. Generally speaking, both the timber and the later stone phases belonged to the "Streuhof" villa type, which will be discussed in more detail below.
A similar continuity between the basic design of earlier and later phases can
also be seen at the villa of Walldorf (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW), although its
excavated timber structures follow a different alignment from the later stone
buildings. The main residence (Bau 16) was constructed as a timber framed structure
with a central courtyard or room, surrounded by further rooms and a projecting
corner space in front. This puts it in the "Zentralhof
or Zentralhallen" house class, which has also occasionally been found in stone buildings. Mortared
floors and the remains of polychrome wall or ceiling paintings suggest luxurious
interior decoration.
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Villa at Walldorf; Overall
plan of the timber and stone phases
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Villa at Walldorf; Wall
paintings from the timber phase main residence
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Of the numerous ancillary buildings in the courtyard, at least one long rectangular timber-framed structure with post settings (Bau 4) is interpreted as a granary or store building, and there are a few smaller structures, some of which survive only partially as beam slots and/or postholes, can also be assigned to the timber phase. The entire area was apparently surrounded by a fence or palisade, whose possible slot seems to have run parallel to the stone phase’s north-western enclosure wall.
The best impression of the structure and composition of villas is given by their stone phases. There is, though a severe disparity between the several thousand villas that have been postulated in the study area, on the basis of field surveys, and published on distribution maps, and the number of excavated site with surviving structures. Moreover, excavations have rarely covered more than a few buildings (frequently the main house and bath building) and may only study parts of buildings. To judge from the literature, the number of sites, which have been subject to large scale studies or near complete excavations, seems to be at most a dozen sites to the east of the Rhine whilst, on the left bank, only half that figure can be reached. Any statements on the overall character of such sites must thus be looked on with caution. It is at least apparent, however, that the basic patterns of farm internal organisation seen in the two neighbouring provinces are also present in the study area, and it is thus possible to distinguish:
"Streuhof" sites have their main residence and ancillary buildings distributed in such a way across the farmyard that no apparent spatial pattern is discernible, and there are no clear alignments of building frontages. There is also no clear internal division into a residential area and the farmyard proper (pars urbana and pars rustica).
With a few notable exceptions, almost all villas in the study area that have produced sufficient evidence to allow a judgement, belong to the Streuhof type, to a greater or lesser extent, even though some cases have the ancillary buildings arranged around the perimeter wall in a way that might give the impression of incipient symmetry. Comparatively well defined examples (in terms of our current level of understanding) are known on the left bank of the Rhine at the following sites:
- Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP).
- Koblenz (Stadt Koblenz / RLP); Koblenzer-Stadtwald am Remstecken.
- Mayen (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz).
- Thallichtenberg (Kr. Kusel / RLP).
- Wachenheim (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP).
- Weiler bei Bingen (Kr. Mainz-Bingen / RLP).
- Weitersbach (Kr. Birkenfeld / RLP).
- Winningen (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz).
"Streuhof" villas
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"Streuhof" villa "Weilberg" in
Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein
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"Streuhof" villa "Remstecken" in
the forest of Koblenz
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"Streuhof" villa
in Wachenheim
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"Streuhof" villa
at Weiler bei Bingen
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The best examples from the Limes hinterland and the right bank of the Rhine include:
- Bietigheim-Bissingen (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Bondorf (Kr. Böblingen / BW).
- Bruchsal-Obergrombach (Kr. Karlsruhe / BW).
- Engen-Bargen (Kr. Konstanz / BW).
- Ettlingen (Kr. Karlsruhe / BW).
- Gemmrigheim (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Hechingen-Stein (Zollernalbkreis / BW).
- Kirchheim am Neckar (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Ladenburg (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW).
- Lauffen am Neckar (Kr. Heilbronn / BW).
- Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Mühlacker-Enzberg (Enzkreis / BW).
- Oberndorf-Bochingen am Neckar (Kr. Rottweil / BW).
- Pforzheim-Hagenschieß (Stadt Pforzheim / BW).
- Rottenburg am Neckar (Kr. Tübingen / BW).
- Sachsenheim-Großsachsenheim (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Tengen-Büßlingen (Kr. Konstanz / BW).
- Vaihingen-Enzweihingen an der Enz (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Walldorf (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW).
"Streuhof" villas
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"Streuhof" villa
Bondorf
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"Streuhof" villa
Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck
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"Streuhof" villa
at Rottenburg am Neckar
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"Streuhof" villa
Tengen-Büßlingen
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The "Streuhof" villas cover the entire size range, but tend towards the small and middle rank are when compared to other regions, particularly Gallic estates or even those from southern Upper Germany.
By contrast to the "Streuhof" villas, axial villas are strictly divided (by walls or buildings) into a pars urbana (residential area), and the farmyard proper (pars rustica). The centrepiece of the pars urbana was the villa’s main residence and, ideally, its imposing facade would act as the focus of the alignment for all ancillary buildings, enclosure walls and main access routes. The result is a certain axial symmetry in the pars rustica, although that does not necessarily mean that each building had a mirror image. Axial villas are further divided into long and short axis variants, depending on whether the pars urbana occupied one of the long or narrow sides of the enclosed farmyard. The axial pattern is rare in the study area, and the short-axis type is entirely absent. Only two long axis, axial villas are known to date and one of these, the left bank villa at Thür (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP), is only known from air photographs.
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Axial villa at Thür; Overall plan based on aerial photograp |
The picture clearly shows an L-shaped building complex in the pars urbana, which is firmly separated from the farmyard and its numerous ancillary buildings. It is currently unique in northern Germania Superior, but typologically similar sites are known from the civitas Treverorum, in neighbouring Gallia Belgica and influence from that area seems likely. For Treveran territory originally reached as far as the Rhine, which may have produced strong ethnic and cultural links in the early Roman period. Similar links can be established to the territory of the Rauraci and Helvetii in southern Upper Germany, with the apparently axial villa of Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW). This lay on the right bank of the Rhine, but the ethnic and cultural connections of the Breisgau to the opposite bank has already been covered. The 20-30 BC foundation date for this 5.5ha (and thus medium sized) villa, can thus be compared with the contemporary founding of similar, but larger (up to 16ha) sites in Switzerland.
The fact that the main residence at Heitersheim served as the barrier between the partes rustica and urbana, instead of lying (at least its main section) well into the residential area, makes it strikingly different from the southern parallels. A similar dividing role between the farmyard and an empty area that may originally have served as a garden is also visible in some "Streuhof" type main houses, for example, in the study area (i.a.) Weiler bei Bingen (Kr. Mainz-Bingen / RLP) and Ettlingen (Kr. Karlsruhe / BW).
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Axial villa Heitersheim
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Streuhof villa "am
Hedwigshof" near Ettlingen
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The known villas in the study area appear far from uniform, despite the marked majority of the "Streuhof" type, and there are enormous variations in the sites’ size and architectural organisation.
The smallest end of the range seems to be represented by smallholding style farms, which are characterised by a single building that served both residential and agrarian functions. At most these structures may be joined by a shed or similar structure, which tends to leave little or no archaeological trace. These sites can thus not be assigned to any of the above types and their identification and (as a result) even the proof of their existence remains somewhat contentious.
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Bolanden
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Monreal
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Enkenbach-Alsenborn
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Kehl-Auenheim
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Thus simple, rectangular structures, such as those excavated in Bolanden (Donnersberg-Kr. / RLP), Monreal (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP) and Enkenbach-Alsenborn (Kr. Kaiserslautern / RLP), could also be ancillary buildings to judge from their shape. The same may also be true for a cill-beam structure of similar design at Kehl-Auenheim (Ortenaukr. / BW), in whose vicinity pits, postholes and a further beam-slot were found. The classification of these structures is thus ultimately dependant on the presence or absence of neighbouring features.
A slightly different form of possible smallholding may be seen at sitesd such as Reipoltskirchen (Kr. Kusel / RLP), Lörrach-Brombach (Stadt Lörrach / BW) and Wurmlingen (Kr. Tuttlingen / BW), where a few residential or agrarian rooms were arranged around a yard with vehicular access.
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Combined residential/agrarian
building at Reipoltskirchen
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Combined residential/agrarian
building at Lörrach-Brombach
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Villa at Wurmlingen
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It is not yet clear, whether these structures necessarily had ancillary buildings. There are only survey results to suggest their presence at Reipoltskirchen, but a separate bath building was built during the timber period at Wurmlingen, and the ensuing stone period saw the construction of another ancillary building. Despite the lack of evidence for an enclosure, the Wurmlingen villa can thus be classified as a "streuhof" villa, but there is no agreement over the role of these structures. Indeed, the compact main residence with its accessible yard and its position close to a road, has led to speculation that they may have been state built road stations.
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Gebäudekomplex in Hohberg-Niederschopfheim
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A building complex on the Roman Rhine road at Hohberg-Niederschopfheim (Ortenaukr. / BW) is often cited in support of this theory, as tiles stamped by Legio XXI were used in its initial phase. A suite of apparently similarly sized rooms in its 2nd phase might also be compatible with a mansio, but its economic role ultimately remains unresolved. In this context it is, however, worth making a general consideration of how far primarily agricultural businesses might have exploited a favourable position on the provinces traffic network to derive and extra income from catering for travellers.
The most common villa sites in the province had a main house and ancillary buildings in clearly recognisable enclosures, which ranged in size between 1ha and a maximum of slightly over 7ha. The larger sites are predominately found on the left bank including the largest of all, the largely unexcavated 7.5ha site of Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein (Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP). Those on the right bank tend to stay close to the river. Amongst the villas on the east bank and the Limes hinterland the upper size limit appears to have been 5.5 - 6ha. But this was only reached by a very few sites, such as Hechingen-Stein (Zollernalbkreis / BW), Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW) and Tengen-Büßlingen (Kr. Konstanz / BW). The average Limes hinterland villa was about 3ha. The number of permanent residents on these farms is a matter of speculation. Smaller farms, such as the 0.75ha site with main house and three ancillary buildings at Kernen-Rommelshausen (Rems-Murr-Kr. / BW) is likely to have been worked by a single family, but farms with secondary residential buildings, like those at the 1ha sites of Lauffen (Kr. Heilbronn / BW) and Pforzheim-Hagenschieß (Stadt Pforzheim / BW), suggest the presence of farm hands, dependent families or at least day labourers.
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Villa at Kernen-Rommelshausen
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Villa at Lauffen a.
N.
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Large store buildings and extensive grain processing installations like those known from the 4ha enclosure at Walldorf (which has occasionally been put forward as an Imperial estate) needed a very large number of people, even where, as here, large enough accommodation areas seem to be absent. The operation of the c. 7.5ha villa at Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein (Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP) and similar farms must have needed around 100 persons, especially given the capacity of the various buildings.
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Villa at Walldorf
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Villa at Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein
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Such calculations are, of course, dependent on the land area cultivated by a given villa, but as the study area has not yet produced evidence for a possible Roman land survey, only estimates can be put forward here. These range from 60 to 120ha along the middle Neckar, 50 to 126ha in the hinterland of Speyer / RLP, and up to 200ha in the valley of the Alsenz (Nordpfälzer Bergland). These significant size variations might partly reflect differing soil qualities and the various agricultural regimes these required.
The term "Zentralhof" type described houses where suites of rooms surround a central courtyard. (NB: these are substantially smaller than the British "courtyard" villas and usually have a completely surrounded courtyard) As an alternative the term "peristyle villa" is sometimes used, especially as cantilevered roofs along the sides of the courtyard should be expected at least in some cases. It is, in addition, a long-standing debate, whether these were in all cases open courtyards, or may not have been roofed over occasionally. Depending on the size and design of the main residence and the nature of the archaeological evidence in each case (which can include sometimes a cobbled area and in others an extensive area of collapsed roof tiles), both alternatives will have to be considered likely in the end. In the study area on the left bank of the Rhine the following main residences can probably be classified as being of the "Zentralhof" type:
- Bad Kreuznach (Kr. Bad Kreuznach / RLP); Fundstelle "Hüffelsheimer Str.".
- Medard (Kr. Kusel / RLP)
and east of the Rhine:
- Bad Rappenau-Zimmerhof (Kr. Heilbronn / BW).
- Gundelsheim-Bachenau (Kr. Heilbronn / BW).
- Hallau (Kt. Schaffhausen / Schweiz).
- Hohberg-Niederschopfheim (Ortenaukr. / BW)
- Kirchheim am Neckar (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Schleitheim (Kt. Schaffhausen / Schweiz); Fundstelle "Brüel"
- Walldorf (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW); Holzbauphase.
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Villa rustica Medard
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Main residence of
the villa Bad Rappenau-Zimmerhof
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Building complex
in Hohberg-Niederschopfheim
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Main residence of
the Villa rustica "Brüel" in Schleitheim
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In addition there is a group of houses, which is related to this type, but whose residential areas only stretch on two or three sides along the open, accessible (for wheeled vehicles) courtyard, but whose remaining sides consists of simple walls and/or simple sheds and waggon parks on the inside. Apart from Reipoltskirchen (Kr. Kusel / RLP) west of the Rhine, the following examples can be found on the right bank of the River:
- Blumberg-Achdorf-Überachen (Schwarzwald-Baar-Kr. / BW).
- Bietigheim-Bissingen (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Lörrach-Brombach (Stadt Lörrach / BW).
- Schleitheim (Kt. Schaffhausen / Schweiz); Fundstelle "Lendenberg".
- Tengen-Büßlingen (Kr. Konstanz / BW).
- Wurmlingen (Kr. Tuttlingen / BW).
When both, main residences and ancillary structures, of this type are considered, a noticeable preference for this type in the area of the upper Danube and along the Hochrhein as well as in Northwestern Raetia can be recognized.
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Main residence
and ancillary building of the villa in Blumberg-Achdorf-Überachen
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Main residence (?)/residential
building of the villa in Bietigheim-Bissingen
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Residential building
of the Villa rustica "Lendenberg" in Schleitheim
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Main residence of
the Villa rustica Tengen-Büßlingen
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The most common form of main residence in both study areas is the so called "portico-villa" or "corridor-villa", whose interior is mainly accessible via the ostentatious portico in front of the building. in nearly all of the cases in the study area the cellar can be found below this in the study area, as here the amount of earth that needed removing was at its lowest, due to most villas' position on a slope facing a valley. With more pronounced slopes the portico was sometimes accessed via a central perron. Attempts at further subdividing the present type, will not be further summarised here, but are based on whether the rooms behind the portico were organised around a central courtyard or room, or whether they formed a row (compare for example most recently Heimberg 2002/2003, 91ff.). Independent from these arrangements, which can sometimes be hard to fit into pre-established patterns, the portico itself can also be used to define different building variants.
In its simplest form, the portico continues along the entire front of the building as a straight ambulatory, such as the one reconstructed above a crypto-portico for the palatial villa of an der "Hüffelsheimer Str." in Bad Kreuznach (Kr. Bad Kreuznach / RLP). This portico is, however, of only secondary importance in the overall design of this villa, as the dominating large peristyle in its centre suggests the classification of this villa as a peristyle villa or "Zentralhof" type.
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Main residence of
the villa on the Hüffelsheimer Straße in Bad Kreuznach
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Main residence of
the Villa rustica "Ziegelscheuer" in Ladenburg
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Villa rustica Hirschberg-Großsachsen
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Other residences with such porticoes are hard to identify in the study area. It seems that the main residences of the villas in Ladenburg (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW) and possibly Hirschberg-Großsachsen (Rhein-Neckar-Kreis / BW), may have had a simple portico front, the former during the timber period, the latter in the first stone period.
The most common form is the winged-corridor villa. Here the portico is limited by the provision of two protruding rooms at both ends. Examples with only one corner room are, comparatively rare, e.g. the older phase of the villa in Alzey-Dautenheim (Kr. Alzey-Worms / RLP).
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Main residence of the
Villa rustica Bruchmühlbach-Miesau
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Main residence of
the villa "In den Kirschkläuern" near Alzey-Dautenheim
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Main residence of
the villa rustica in Katzenbach
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The occurrence of the impressive Portico and corner room facade is apparently not linked to a particular house size. The front sides of the buildings range from 20 to 65 m, but are for the most part markedly less than forty metres in length. As the timber framed building with point foundations behind the stone facade of the small villa in Bruchmühlbach-Miesau (Kr. Kaiserslautern / RLP) or the 24 m large core building behind the 65 m long winged-corridor facade in Katzenbach (Donnersberg-Kr. / RLP) clearly demonstrate, these ostentatious frontages were sometimes not more than a stage facade.
Other relevant examples of this type of facade structure are found on the left bank of the Rhine i.a. in:
- Alzey-Dautenheim (Kr. Alzey-Worms / RLP); later phase.
- Andernach (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP).
- Bad Kreuznach (Kr. Bad Kreuznach / RLP); Neubaugebiet Stadtrand.
- Herschweiler-Pettersheim (Kr. Kusel (RLP).
- Mayen (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP).
- Neustadt-Lachen-Speyerdorf (Kr. Neustadt a. d. Weinstraße / RLP).
- Rothselberg (Kr. Kusel / RLP).
- Thallichtenberg (Kr. Kusel / RLP).
- Warmsroth-Walderbach (Kr. Bad Kreuznach / RLP).
- Weiler bei Bingen (Kr. Mainz-Bingen / RLP).
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Main residence and
bath building of the villa Neustadt-Lachen-Speyerdorf
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Main residence of
the Villa in Rothselberg
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Main residence of
the villa in Thallichtenberg
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Furthermore the following sites have to be mentioned from the right bank of the Rhine and the Limes hinterland:
- Bad Rappenau-Babstadt (Kr. Heilbronn / BW).
- Beringen (Kt. Schaffhausen / Schweiz).
- Bondorf (Kr. Böblingen / BW).
- Brigachtal-Überauchen (Schwarzwald-Baar-Kr. / BW).
- Eigeltingen-Eckartsbrunn (Kr. Konstanz / BW).
- Engen-Bargen (Kr. Konstanz / BW).
- Ettlingen (Kr. Karlsruhe / BW).
- Gemmrigheim (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Gundelsheim-Tiefenbachtal (Kr. Heilbronn / BW).
- Hechingen-Stein (Zollernalbkreis / BW).
- Hüfingen (Schwarzwald-Baar-Kr. / BW).
- Karlsruhe-Durlach (Stadt Karlsruhe / BW).
- Kernen-Rommelshausen (Rems-Murr-Kr. / BW).
- possibly (Klettgau-Geißlingen; Kr. Waldshut (BW).
- Ladenburg (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW); Phase II.
- Laufenburg (Kr. Waldshut / BW).
- Lauffen am Neckar (Kr. Heilbronn / BW).
- Leinfelden-Echterdingen-Stetten a.d. Fildern (Kr. Esslingen / BW).
- Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
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Main residene of
the villa Bondorf
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Villa rustica Engen-Bargen
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Main residence of
the Villa rustica "Ziegelscheuer" in Ladenburg
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Main residence of
the villa Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck
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- Merdingen (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW).
- Mühlacker-Enzberg (Enzkreis / BW).
- Mühlacker-Lomersheim (Enzkreis / BW).
- Mundelsheim (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Nagold (Kr. Calw / BW).
- Neustetten-Remmingsheim (Kr. Tübingen / BW).
- Nürtingen-Oberensingen (Kr. Esslingen (BW).
- Oberndorf-Bochingen am Neckar (Kr. Rottweil / BW).
- Oedheim (Kr. Heilbronn / BW).
- possibly Ostfildern-Ruit (Kr. Esslingen / BW).
- Osterfingen (Kt. Schaffhausen / Schweiz).
- Pforzheim-Hagenschieß (Stadt Pforzheim / BW).
- Remseck am Neckar-Neckarrems (Rems-Murr-Kr. / BW).
- Reutlingen-Betzingen (Kr. Reutlingen / BW).
- Reutlingen-Mittelstadt (Kr. Reutlingen / BW).
- Sachsenheim-Großsachsenheim (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Schorndorf-Schornbach (Rems-Murr-Kr. / BW).
- Schriesheim (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW).
- Schwieberdingen (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Schwörstadt (Kr. Lörrach / BW).
- Siblingen (Kt. Schaffhausen / Schweiz).
- Stammheim (Kr. Calw / BW).
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Main residence of
the villa rustica "Schlößleäcker" in Mundelsheim
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Villa rustica Nagold
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Main residence of
a villa rustica in Siblingen
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Main residence of
the villa Stammheim
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- Starzach-Bierlingen (Kr. Tübingen / BW).
- Starzach-Börstingen (Kr. Tübingen / BW).
- Vaihingen-Enzweihingen a. d. Enz (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW).
- Walldorf (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW).
- Wolfschlugen (Kr. Esslingen / BW).
- possibly Weinsberg (Kr. Heilbronn / BW).
Depending, how far the corner rooms protruded from the facade, the ends of the portico could occasionally turn and follow the side walls of these rooms, thus turning the originally straight colonnade into a U-shape. This variant can be found in the study area both in main residences with facades of 30-40m length, as e.g. Hirschberg-Großsachsen (Rhein-Neckar-Kreis / BW) and Winningen (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP), as well as in large villas such as in Steinwenden (Kr. Kaiserslautern / RLP), which has a facade of 92m length.
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Main residence of
the villa Winningen
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Villa rustica Hirschberg-Großsachsen
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Main residence of
the villa rustica in Steinwenden
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Main residence of
the villa rustica Weitersbach
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As the last few examples already show, the boundary between strongly protruding, multiple roomed corners and proper wings was probably fluid. This can also be seen in the villa of Weitersbach (Kr. Birkenfeld / RLP), where in the course of the 2nd century during the alterations of the stone period, the winged corridor villa became a three winged courtyard villa. A similar development is also apparent in the villa in Ladenburg (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW), where the wings of phase III were, however, little more than the joining porticoes between two corner rooms far in front of the rest of the building.
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Main residence of
the Villa rustica "Ziegelscheuer" in Ladenburg
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Main residential
complex of the Villa rustica "Weilberg" in Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein
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Villa rustica Wachenheim
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Other main residences with pronounced wings are known on the left bank of the Rhine from Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP) and Wachenheim (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP), and on the right bank possibly from Rosenfeld (Zollernalbkr. / BW), Schleitheim (Kt. Schaffhausen / Schweiz) and Ubstadt-Weiher-Stettfeld (Kr. Karlsruhe / BW), and with certain reservations also from Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW). These are always large to very large building with facade lengths of 40m to over 100m. Except in the case of Rosenfeld, which only had a straight portico between the over 20m long wings, in all other cases the U-shaped portico allowed in all other cases access from the main building to the wings of the residence. The multi-winged villa of Ubstadt-Weiher-Stettfeld, which is so far only known from the aerial photographs, appears to have had a portico on both sides of the wings.
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Main residence of
a villa in Rosenfeld
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Main residence of
the Villa rustica "Vorholz" bei Schleitheim
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Villa rustica Ubstadt-Weiher-Stettfeld
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Main residence of the large villa of Heitersheimground |
Main residence of
the large villa of Heitersheim
ground plan of Phase IV |
The villa of Heitersheim is slightly unusual in that the U-shaped portico there, in keeping with the design of Italian rural villas, lay in the back of the house and opened onto the garden and for a time (during phase III) it was even turned into a closed peristyle around a central pool. As features from some of the villas in the Swiss part of Upper Germany demonstrate (compare e.g. Dietikon, Kt. Zürich), villas with wings opening towards the front tended to have impressive garden or courtyard designs in the space between the different wings of the building. In the current study area large decorative pools are known in front of the main residences of Grenzach-Wyhlen (Kr. Lörrach / BW) and Hirschberg-Großsachsen (Rhein-Neckar-Kreis / BW) may point to a similar habit here.
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Water basin in front
of the main residence of the Villa rustica of Grenzach-Wyhlen
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Water basin in front
of the 2nd stone period main residence of the Villa rustica of Hirschberg-Großsachsen
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The water basin in the back of the villa in Güglingen-Frauenzimmern (Kr. Heilbronn / BW) contained furthermore numerous sculpture fragments, some of which belonged to the decorations of the garden area and which illustrated the owner’s links with the Mediterranean world by displaying mythological scenes from the Odyssey, a gigantomachia (battle between the gods and the giants), as well as nymphs and dolphins.
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Villa in Güglingen-Frauenzimmern;
simplified plan of the site and sculpture of the fill of the water
basin
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Villa in Güglingen-Frauenzimmern;
Sculpture fragments with scenes from the Odyssey from the fill of the
water basin
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Overall the level of luxury displayed in the main residences tends to vary widely within the study area, but is on the whole less sumptuous in the villas Southern Upper Germany. Apart from wall coloured in one or more colours and simple panel decorations, wall paintings also frequently included small geometric patterns, marble imitations and especially floral designs. Much rarer are the figural scenes. The palatial villa in Bad Kreuznach (Kr. Bad Kreuznach / RLP), the main residence in Bingen-Kempten (Kr. Mainz-Bingen / RLP), Mühlheim-Kärlich and Mühlheim-Kärlich-Depot (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP) or in Wachenheim (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße) should be mentioned as sites with particularly high quality examples of wall- and ceiling paintings. This list can be complemented with further examples from east of the Rhine as for example from Grenzach-Wyhlen (Kr. Lörrach / BW), Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW), Ladenburg (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW), Laufenburg (Kr. Waldshut / BW), Walldorf (Rhein-Neckar-Kr.) as well as the complex in Hohberg-Niederschopfheim (Ortenaukr. / BW), whose exact functions remains under discussion.
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Main residence
of the villa rustica Wachenheim
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Main residence of
the Villa rustica "Ziegelscheuer" in Ladenburg
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Main residence of
the Villa rustica in Mühlheim-Kärlich-Depot
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Main residence of
the villa in Grenzach-Wyhlen
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So far no direct mathematical relationship has been established between the size of a villa in the study area and the use of wall painting, but commonly the more complicated patterns can be found in the main residences of medium size and above. The subject matter of the few figural paintings, such as the birth of Venus in Mühlheim-Kärlich-Depot or the possible battle between the Lapiths and the Centaurs in the villa of Grenzach-Wyhlen, suggests as the patrons people of Roman/Mediterranean educational background.Other types of interior decorationa are also sometimes found: e.g. fragments of stucco decorations, e.g Boos (Kr. Bad Kreuznach / RLP), Steinwenden (Kr. Kaiserslautern / RLP), Grenzach-Wyhlen (Kr. Lörrach / BW) or Bad Kreuznach (Kr. Bad Kreuznach / RLP), while i.a. at Ettlingen (Kr. Karlsruhe / BW) fragments of a sculpted architrave could be identified.
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Main residence of
the villa rustica Boos; fragment of stucco decorations
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Main residence
of the villa in Grenzach-Wyhlen; fragments of stucco and marble veneer
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Villa "am
Hedwigshof" near Ettlingen; architectural fragments
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There was, moreover, evidence for the marble wall and/or floor coverings, in addition to the sites already mentioned these come amongst others from Auggen (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW) and the villas "Vorholz" near Schleitheim (Kt. Schaffhausen / Schweiz) and "Gurtweiler Tal" near Waldshut (Stadt Waldshut-Tiengen / BW). The highest level of architectural fittings was the opus sectile – inlays, which were found at the latter sites, as well as in the large villas of Bad Kreuznach (Kr. Bad Kreuznach / RLP), Grenzach-Wyhlen (Kr. Lörrach / BW) and Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW). From the listed places also came some of the comparatively rare evidence for mosaic floors. In addition the rural sites of Auggen (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW), Boos (Kr. Bad Kreuznach / RLP), Steinwenden (Kr. Kaiserslautern / RLP), Laufenburg (Kr. Waldshut / BW), "Vorholz" bei Schleitheim (Kt. Schaffhausen / Schweiz) and the building complex of Hohberg-Niederschopfheim (Ortenaukr. / Kr.) should be mentioned.
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Main residence
of the villa of Heitersheim; fragments of an opus sectile floor
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Main residence of
the villa on the Hüffelsheimer Straße in Bad Kreuznach; floor mosaic
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Main residence of
the Villa rustica "Vorholz" bei Schleitheim; mosaic fragments
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In conclusion one is left with the
impression, that the particularly richly furnished villas are usually found
on the left bank of the Rhine and in close proximity to the river on the
right bank, while in the Limes hinterland material the type of wealth display
appears to be markedly less common.
This picture is further born out by the marble veneers, which were found in
separate bath buildings in the villa of Bruchsaal-Obergrombach (Kr. Karlsruhe
/ BW) and Merdingen (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW).
With the exception of the smallholdings (compare above) and a few other sites,
bath buildings are a normal feature of villae
rusticae in the area. They were integrated into the main residence, adjoined it or could
alternatively be a separate building.
As examples from Ettlingen (Kr. Karlsruhe / BW), Hechingen-Stein (Zollernalbkreis
/ BW) or Weinsberg (Kr. Heilbronn / BW) show, originally separate buildings
could be either linked to the main residence via a portico or by extending
the existing portico in the course of the villa’s development. Sometimes, as
at Heitersheim, it was possible to make it completely part of the main residence,
by inserting further rooms between the two structures.
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Main residence
and bath building of the villa rustica Hechingen-Stein); ground plan
of period II in the 2nd century AD
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Main residence and
bath building of the Villa rustica of Hechingen-Stein; groundplan of
period III/Phase 3 during the 1st half of the 3rd century AD
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Main residence and
bath building of the villa rustica of Weinsberg; ground plan of the
latest period
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While on the left bank integrated bath suites are clearly in the majority, the area between the Rhine and the Limes appears to have preferred separate bath buildings, Most of these as well as the integrated bath suites were of the so-called block type, where the rooms were arranged in at least two rows, frequently praefurnium and hot room on one side and cold and warm room on the other, which resulted in a compact, and generally rectangular building, the block.
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Example of a separate
bath building of the block type in Merdingen
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Example of a separate
bath building of the block type in Niedereschbach-Fischbach
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Example of a separate
bath building of the row type in Bietigheim-Bissingen
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Example of a separate
bath building of the row type in Freiberg-Beihingen a. N.
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As an alternative and spatially less efficient, the rooms could also all be arranged in a single row one after the other. Examples of this row type were found in the 1st stone period of the villa of Bietigheim-Bissingen (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) and in the enclosed area of a villa near Freiberg-Beihingen a. N. (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW)
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Main residence with
possible bath room in Bad Kreuznach
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Main residence with
possible bath room in Herschweiler-Pettersheim
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As a general rule the extent of bathing facilities ranged from the smallest, in the form of the possible provision of a single tub in one room in the main residence of of Bad Kreuznach (Kr. Bad Kreuznach / RLP) or Herschweiler-Pettersheim (Kr. Kusel / RLP), to medium sized installations such as Weiler bei Bingen (Kr. Mainz-Bingen), Laufen a. N. (Kr. Heilbronn / BW) or Laufenburg (Kr. Waldshut / BW), to luxuriously appointed, impressive bath buildings such as at Hirschberg-Großsachsen (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW) or Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald). In addition to the normal sequence of the three rooms these latter even sported a sweating room (sudatorium) and in the case of the villa of Heitersheim, an adjoining palaestra.
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Main residence with
integrated bath suite in Weiler bei Bingen
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Main residen with
integrated bath suite in Lauffen a. N.
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Main residence with
integrated bath suite in Laufenburg
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Main residence
of the Villa rustica Hirschberg-Großsachsen
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Bath building of
the villa of Heitersheim
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Most villas in the study area had at least one cold and a hot room (frigidarium and caldarium), and the majority had also a warm room (tepidarium). As the comparatively humble bath suite of the extensive main residence of Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein (Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP) shows, the size of the bathing facilities was not necessarily proportionate to the size of the main residence. In some cases two separate baths have been identified. The second bath building in the villa of Hechingen-Stein (Zollernalbkreis / BW) remains for the most part unexcavated and it can thus not be decided at the moment, whether the two were in use side by side. In Wachenheim (Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP) by contrast nothing seems to argue against the concurrent use of the both bath suites, which were integrated into the main residence.
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Main residence
with integrated bath suite in Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein
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Villa rustica Hechingen-Stein
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Main residence with
two integrated bath suites in Wachenheim
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The water supply of the baths and the villas in the study area overall was secured either by aqueducts or deep wells. There is currently no evidence for a preference for either system. Small cisterns, such as the sink hole within the enclosure of the villa of Bondorf (Kr. Böblingen / BW), which had been lined for this purpose or the square structure on the north western enclosure wall of the older stone phase of Sachsenheim-Großsachsenheim (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) provided never more than an additional source of supply. Both lead and clay water pipes are known, such as at the palatial villa of Bad Kreuznach (Kr. Bad Kreuznach / RLP) or in Weitersbach (Kr. Birkenfeld / RLP), but also stone channels, such as in the villa "am Annaberg" in Bad Dürkheim (Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP), Beringen (Kt. Schaffhausen / Schweiz) or Eutingen-Rohrdorf (Kr. Freudenstadt / BW). One of the most common construction techniques is wooden piping, which consisted of a log, which had been split lengthways and then cored. The use of such pipes were not restricted to short distances, but can be used to bridge longer distances, as the up to 3km long example in Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW) demonstrates. Apart from discolorations from the decayed wood and the associated pipe trenches, iron clamp rings are occasionally found (as in a villa in Ladenburg (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW)), which linked the separate elements together.
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Villa rustica Hirschberg-Großsachsen;
traces of a wooden aqueduct
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Villa rustica "Ziegelscheuer" in
Ladenburg ; iron clamp rings of a wooden aqueduct
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Villa rustica in
Nürtingen-Oberensingen; iron clamp ring of a timber aqueduct and the sintered pipe
core
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At the villa of Nürtingen-Oberensingen
(Kr. Esslingen / BW) the central sinter (lime scale) of the pipe was found
inside one of the iron clamps. A possible alternative to the timber pipe
was used in a villa in Ostfildern-Ruit (Kr. Esslingen), which had a water-supply
lined with oak planks.
Similarly to the water pipes, deep wells could be lined in both timber and
stone. Their number varies between different villas ranging from one to at
least four, as in Walldorf (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW). These were not necessarily
all in use at the same time. A well preserved example of a timber-lined well
with box construction comes from Hirschberg-Großsachsen
(Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW). Above a round water catchment feature on the base
of the well, which consisted of vertical planks which narrowed towards the
bottom (an old barrel?), a wooden box construction was raised, whose outer
side was backed and waterproofed with a packing of broken stones and clayey-sandy
soil.
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Vill rustica Winningen;
stone lined well
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Villa rustica Hirschberg-Großsachsen;
remains of timber lined rectangular well
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Little ponds or small pools, which were mainly used for the providing additional water for industrial purposes and the dousing of fires, are commonly found on Lower German villa sites, but have so far not been identified in the Upper German study areas.
The reasons, why in so many villas only the main residence and the
bath building are archaeologically studied, have already been discussed.
Thus our understanding of the ancillary building is markedly less well developed.
It is furthermore usually impossible, to determine the function of these
buildings, which were often not or only summarily divided into large compartments,
unless specific technical installations are present or small finds associated
with certain function can be recovered. Generally speaking, ancillary structures
had to meet all the spatial needs of a working farm, ranging from accommodation,
to workshops, store buildings, down to stables and waggon sheds. The range
of construction techniques range from post-built structures, to cill-beam
buildings (with and without dwarf walls), up and including stone buildings,
whose foundations sometimes suggest that the original building may have had
more than a single storey. With slighter foundations it can be difficult
to decide, whether they represent full stone structures or only timber-framed buildings
on top of a dwarf walls (thus facing the same problem as in the main residences
discussed above). While it is possible with stone foundations to at least
record the ground plan of the building, many of the lighter timber structures
may elude the archaeological record because of their foundations, which may
not have penetrated the ground deep enough to leave traces. This is especially
the case for covered areas and light sheds, both of which were essential
to a working farm. Alternatively they may be obscured in a hard to interpret
cat’s cradle of the different small rubbish and storage pits, post pits and
slots.
There is no easy mathematical relationship between the number of ancillary
buildings and the size of the villa. As far as the current level of research
allows such generalisations, the number of ancillary buildings appears to range
from two to ten, after the exclusion of the bath buildings. In extreme cases
this can mean that large villa rusticae, such as the 3.2ha large villa of Oberndorf-Bochingen
a. N. (Kr. Rottweil / BW) had only 2-3 ancillary buildings, while the very
small, 0.83 ha villa of Vaihingen-Enzweihingen a. d. E. (Kr. Ludwigsburg /
BW) had seven and the 1.4ha villa in Bondorf (Kr. Böblingen
/ BW) had 10 additional structures. It is understood, that at the very large
villa sites even higher numbers could be expected, such as Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein (Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP) or Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW), where in the case
of the former 8 structures are known, while Heitersheim has thus far produced
six. But a lot of this remains speculative in view of the local conditions.
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Villa of Oberndorf-Bochingen
a. N.
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Villa rustica Vaihingen-Enzweihingen
a. d. E.
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Villa rustica in
Niedereschach-Fischbach
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Secondary residential
building of the villa of Lauffen a. N.
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On several villas of the study area structures were identified among the ancillary buildings, which served first and foremost as accommodation and thus probably served the housing of farmhands and other dependent families. Further theories, that these houses may have served as rest houses (mansiones) for travellers, are worth considering, but currently nothing more than a hypothesis. Buildings of this type are known from Vaihingen-Enzweihingen a. d. E. (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) as belonging to the "Zentralhof" or in Niedereschach-Fischbach (Schwarzwald-Baar-Kreis / BW) with a frontal portico, which demonstrates links with the main residence. In the case of a building with portico in villa rustica von Lauffen (Kr. Heilbronn / BW), which faced the valley, contained coloured wall plaster and hypocausted living quarters at, it is tempting to consider, whether this may not have been an earlier main residence, which may have become the house of the children of the villa owner, after the new residence had been completed. Secondary residences with wall painting and heated rooms are also known from the villas in Bietigheim-Bissingen (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) and Kirchheim a. N. (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW). For the most part the furnishings and fittings of these ancillary buildings consist at the most of the coloured wall painting, as at Grenzach-Wyhlen (Kr. Lörrach / BW) or Niedereschach-Fischbach (Schwarzwald-Baar-Kreis / BW).
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Combined residential/agrarian
building of the Villa rustica in Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein
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Villa rustica Pforzheim-Hagenschieß
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Bath building with
attached combined residential/agrarian building in Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck
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Villa rustica in
Thallichtenberg
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At least as common as the purely residential structures, is the chance that the farm hands may have been originally housed in the agrarian buildings and workshops. A secure identification of such a dual function is, however, so far not always easy. At least in Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein (Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP) living quarters have been identified in a building that otherwise served for the storage and/or condensation of grape must/juice. In Bad Rappenau-Babstadt (Kr. Heilbronn / BW) remains of coloured wall plaster in a building that served primarily as granary, also suggests residential or sleeping quarters; on the other hand a "Zentralhof" type house in Pforzheim-Hagenschieß (Stadt Pforzheim / BW) appears to have been used not only for housing people, but also for storing vehicles. In Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) similar ideas apply to a series of structures, which in the course of the 2nd and 3rd stone period turned the separate bath building step-by-step into a house of the "Zentralhof" type. A building in Thallichtenberg (Kr. Kusel / RLP) is characterised by an integrated bath building, but features also ovens and basins, which may be in keeping with a smithy. It remains, however, unclear, if the use as a workshop may not have happened after its use for residential purposes. Combined residential/agrarian uses have to be postulated for several of the building in the pars rustica of the axial villa in Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW) in analogy to their presence and location in similarly structures villas in the Swiss part of Upper Germany. The list of buildings for which this type of argument in the study area could be made, could be extended a lot further statements concerning the economic basis of the individual villa are based to a lesser or greater part on supposition, unless they can be identified by identifiable technical installations within the farmyard. Agriculture or at least for the processing of its harvests is strongly indicated by the drying ovens, which were inserted in many of the farms in the study area during the 2nd/3rd century.
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Villa rustica Bruchsal-Obergrombach
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Mill building C
of the villa rustica von Hechingen-Stein
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Building with corn
drier and mill leat/artificial stream channel in or close to the north
corner of the villa rustica Walldorf
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In some places, as in Bruchsal-Obergrombach (Kr. Karlsruhe / BW), where two flax driers and two corn driers were housed in the same building (Bau H), or in Hechingen-Stein (Zollernalbkreis / BW), where Building C contained three corn driers, which were in use concurrently, in addition to a large mill and fragments of large storage vessels (dolia), a production at a high level seems certain. This is also true for the villa rustica in Walldorf (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW), one of whose buildings (Bau 12) contained three corn driers as well as several millstones. In combination with a mill leat/artificial stream, which ran just outside the structure, it seems justified to reconstruct a water mill in the vicinity of the corn dryers. In Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW), by contrast the remains of a large horse drawn mill were found. The size of the agricultural capacity of the Walldorf villa is not only indicated by the corn drier and its clearly associated storage capacities, but even more so by the three large rectangular ancillary buildings of long-rectangular form.
Villa rustica Walldorf
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overall plan
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Timber granary (?)
(Bau 4)
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Stone granary (Bau
6)
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Stone granary (Bau
13)
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The oldest of them (Bau 4) is a 25 x 11m large post-built structure, whose alignment suggests that it was contemporary with the timber period. Ancillary buildings of similar plan and occasionally similar size are frequently found in the villas of southern Lower Germany. As they lack characteristic features, such as supporting walls for raised floors, their identification is made in analogy from the two later stone buildings 6 and 13: the (32 x 18m) long-rectangular building 6 had numerous buttress-style wall-reinforcements which were integrated into the outer walls and sat on a base of sandstone blocks (Length/height: 1.5 x 0.6 m). The interior of building 13 of over 1000 sqm appears to have had substructions, which ran parallel to the outer walls, which consisted of even larger sandstone blocks, which were several meters long and 1m deep and wide. Form and the construction details identify these buildings as granaries (horrea).
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Stone granary from
Bad Rappenau
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Villa rustica Bad
Rappenau-Babstadt
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Granary in the north-east
corner of the villa of Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck
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Villa rustica Merdingen
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Villa rustica Sachsenheim-Großsachsenheim
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Further horrea are known from Bad Rappenau and Bad Rappenau-Babstadt (Kr. Heilbronn / BW), Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW), Merdingen (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW) and Sachsenheim-Großsachsenheim (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW). As the latter two examples demonstrate particularily well, as their substructions allow no doubt as to their interpretation, these granaries could also be of very different shapes, which may have been split into smaller units. Certain similarities with the granary in Sachsenheim-Großsachsenheim, are also noticeable in the possible horreum in Bietigheim-Bissingen (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) or the store building with vehicle access of a villa rustica or trading station (?) in Oberderdingen-Flehingen/Bauerbach (Kr. Karlsruhe / BW).
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Villa rustica or
trading station of Oberderdingen-Flehingen/Bauerbach
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Granary/storage
building of a villa in Remchingen-Wilferdingen
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Store buildings such as the case already mentioned that were accessible to vehicles are also known elsewhere, e.g. in the building in Remchingen-Wilferdingen (Enzkreis / BW). The interior could be partially cobbled of flagged. In Remchingen-Wilferdingen this flooring is adjoined and delineated by a strengthened access-ramp in the centre of the building. The half of the building behind the ramp may originally have had a raised threshing floor, as suggested by the finds of numerous iron nails, before later on two hearths for a workshop were installed here. In comparison with such details, only few indications as to the overall architectural appearance are known from such ancillary buildings.
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Smaller ancillary
building 4 of the villa Oberndorf-Bochingen a. N.
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Larger ancillary
building 3 of the villa Oberndorf-Bochingen a. N.
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The features encountered on the villa in Oberndorf-Boching a.N. (Kr. Rottweil / BW) are thus all the more special. Here the walls of two ancillary buildings (the smaller of which had a large central gate) fell over - probably in the course of an earthquake during the third century AD. Apart from technical insights into the construction of the two faced walls with rubble core, which had been provided at the beginning of the gable, and just below the roof with rows of stone flags and architraves, the most noticeable thing were the dimensions of the walls. The 18 x 15 large building reached the eaves at 7.1m, and had a gable height of the 12m, while the smaller (15 x 10 m) structure reached the eaves at 7.5 m. The dimensions clearly show, that many of the stone agrarian buildings may have been multi-storey or at least had mezzanine floors and thus a much larger capacity then the ground plan alone normally suggests.
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Area around the main
residence of a villa in Starzach-Bierlingen
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A case in point are the tower granaries, which develop during the course of the Roman period, and which rise above comparatively small, but usually very heavily fundamented square walls. Possible ground plans of tower granaries, which could occasionally be joined to other buildings from the villa rustica at Mayen (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz/ RLP). Mühlacker-Enzberg (Enzkreis / BW) or Starzach-Bierlingen (Kr. Tübingen / BW).
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Wine press of the
villa rustica "Am Weilberg" in Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein
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Evidence for Wine
production from the residential/agrarian building 4
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Until today viticulture formed a peculiar variety of agriculture in certain parts of the study area. Apart from the small finds such as pruning knifes, the archaeological evidence for this industry is remarkably small. The currently best understood example is doubtless the wine-press of a villa in Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP). The rectangular stone building is half built into the hill and was possibly only partially roofed. An internal wall separated two rooms, the one in the back may have been used for storage purpose, while in front of the wall a sequence of three basins with water-tight mortar were installed. The floor of the two larger long-rectangular basins, in which the grapes were stamped with bare feet, slopes in such a way, that the resulting most could drain via a pipe on their narrow sides into the square collector basin between the two. To remove the remaining juice from the mashed grapes, the presence of a mechanical wine press proper was highly likely within the generously dimensioned building, although no trace of one survived. The dimensions of this pressing installation, which originally only consisted of the basin for mashing the grapes, but which was later extended, suggests a considerable production capacity. In addition to wine, grape most concentrate as sweetener appears to have been made here as well. This is at least suggested by the presence of a typical lead vessel in another building of the villa (Bau 4), which was used to heat and condense the concentrate, as the grape pips in the oxidation layers prove.
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Possible wine press
in the villa of Lauffen a. N.
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Ancillary building
C of the villa of Winningen
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Main residence of
the Villa rustica in Mühlacker-Enzberg
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Apart from the securely identifiable
examples from Ungstein, a further stone ancillary building in Laufen a. N.
(Kr. Heilbronn / BW) is occasionally discussed as a wine-press, on the basis
of its ground plan alone, as no technical features survive. It remains, therefore,
as hypothetical, as the function of two elevated, square basins in the multi-function
ancillary building C in Winningen (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP), which were proposed
by the excavator as possible must basins. A comparable, and thus similarly
interpreted basin was also found in the northern corner room of the main
residence of Mühlacker-Enzberg (Enzkreis / BW).
In comparison with agriculture, the proof for alternative sources of income
or at least evidence of diversification remains difficult for the villas in
the study area. Large open walled enclosures in Bietigheim-Bissingen (Kr. Ludwigsburg
/ BW) within the farmyard might point towards stock rearing. A fife-sided area,
which was enclosed in the 2nd stone period (Bau IX), might have been a riding
area for the training of young animals, while large ancillary buildings (Bau
XII-XIII), may have been stables, base on the urine gullies found in them.
Together they suggest the presence of a horse breeding station.
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Villa rustica Bietigheim-Bissingen
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Villa rustica or
possible fish farm in Herbolzheim
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A specialisation into fish farming
appears to be present in Herbolzheim (Kr. Emmendingen / BW). The farm consists
i.a. of a U-shaped open farm building with a stone back wall, and otherwise
rooms, which consisted of lightly separated units (with the exception of
a single heated living room), in front of whose open side lay an area of
fragmented tiles, which was criss-crossed by water basins and channels. The
keeping of fish is of course also possible in some of the large decorative
ponds, which have been found in front of or in the vicinity of some of the
main residences (see above). These may, however, be less fish farms for breeding
for a market and more fish stocks for the owner’s own use.
Other activities, which are known from villas in the study area, should probably
be seen in a similar light, i.e supplying the needs of the farm, such as smithying,
lime burning and brick or pottery production. Evidence for metalworking occurs
mostly in the form of slag, occasionally also as furnaces and rarely as iron
ingots, e.g. from the back of the main residence of a villa in Schwörstadt
(Kr. Lörrach / BW). Larger metal working sites are known from the large villa sites
of Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP) and Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald). The sampled slag from
the latter site contained in addition to iron also copper-alloy and silver.
In addition to the maintenance and creation of the tools and fittings (e.g.
horse harness), which were needed in the course of the agricultural activities,
the production of all metal construction elements and fixtures is equally to
be expected as having happened on site. This is shown by the presence of five
small smithying ovens in Mühlacker-Enzberg (Enzkreis / BW), which can be stratigraphically linked with the
construction phase of the main residence and which were used as temporary workshops
for nail and other fixtures.
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Villa rustica in
Mühlacker-Enzberg;
short-term smithying hearths |
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Limekiln in front
of the south wall of the Villa rustica Bondorf
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Limekilns on the
farmyard of the villa in Korntal-Münchingen
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Some
of the limekilns, which were found close to or in the farmyards of some villas
had probably similarly short lived lives during extensive rebuilding phases.
In the end it has to remain open, if the two found in Walldorf (Rhein-Neckar-Kr.
/ BW) and Korntal-Münchingen (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) may have produced in excess of the farm’s own
needs. In Korntal-Münchingen they overlay an earlier brick making kiln, which had been abandoned,
to make way for the lime kilns and which had been adeapted accordingly. This
sequence underlines the apparently short-lived nature of such technical installations,
which provided local building material. The brick making kilns found in the
villas of Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW) and Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck
(Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) were apparently also associated with particular phases
of building work and were not in themselves a business enterprise.
Brick making kiln on the farmyard of the villa rustica Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck
Most of the evidence for pottery production on villas should probably be seen in the context of supplying the farm’s own needs and perhaps provide packaging for the archaeological produce. Even the working of two pottery kilns in the farmyard of the large villa of Bad Dürkheim-Ungstein (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP, appears to be in keeping with the size of the agricultural production of the site.
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Pottery kiln on
the farm yard of the villa of Heitersheim
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Villa of Heitersheim;
pottery from local production
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It is, however, less likely, that the smooth, beige stamped or signed coarse ware (usually bearing stamps L.I [...] or signatures FON[---] or "FONTI" which was made in at least three kilns on the farmyard of Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / RLP), was actually meant exclusively for the farm or for packaging. The markings and the range of shapes of this pottery, which contained mortaria, cooking bowls and jars, suggest that this production served a local market to an, as yet, unknown extent. At least, attempts at an industrial pottery production are also known from Schwieberdingen (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW). In addition to the two pottery kilns, one of which still contained Roman pottery of a dusty, flowery fabric, the villa also produced a mould, which in connection with grey pottery with badly adhering engobe might be the remains of an attempted Samian ware production.
Apart from residential and agrarian buildings the villas of the study area also produced several structures, which have been interpreted as sanctuaries on the basis of their ground plan. This interpretation can occasionally be verified through the remains of their fixtures and small finds. Normally these are small rectangular or square walls enclosures without any recognisable internal division. In the absence of identifiable small finds, their interpretation can thus vary between that of the shrine or tower granary.
More complex temple buildings, which are easier to interpret, e.g. in Tengen-Büßlingen (Kr. Konstanz / BW), are thus far the exception. Opposite the front of the main residence lay originally a single-room rectangular structure, which was extended into a simple prostylos temple, by adding probably an open ante room with wooden columns, which supported the roof.
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Villa rustica in
Tengen-Büßlingen; temple
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Villa rustica "Im
Brasil" bei Mayen; temple buildings
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Villa rustica "Im
Brasil" bei Mayen; terracotta figurines
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At a villa in Mayen (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz
/ RLP) a small shrine-like structure and an accompanying older, larger cult
building were both oriented towards the East, away from the main residence.
The presence of the first helped to identify the larger trapezoid single
roomed building as a sanctuary. Numerous fragments of altars, stone sculptures,
terracotta figurines (i.a. a matrona and a Venus), incense burners and the
ceramic miniature vessels, which were discovered around the buildings as
well as at other sites in the farmyard underline the existence of such a
building on the site.
That a simple ground plan does not necessarily mean a lack of decorations and
fittings is demonstrated by the villa in Bondorf (Kr.Böblingen
/ BW). The single roomed rectangular structure lay once again opposite the
main residence, but consisted of carefully mortared coursed masonry walls,
mortar floors and evidence of a painted interior in red brown, as well as numerous
sandstone architectural fragments, such as architraves, pilaster and base blocks.
They were found in a pit, 15 m from the buildings together with fragments of
at least seven life-sized statues of various deities, amongst which were Mercury,
Victoria and apparently Mars,.
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Villa rustica Bondorf;
reconstruction of the villa with temple
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Villa rustica Bondorf;
Selected architectural and scultured fragments from the temple
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Villa in Eutingen-Rohrdorf;
Overall plan of the "Sacred Area"
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Villa in Eutingen-Rohrdorf;
sculptures
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A similar assembly of gods is also known from Eutingen-Rohrdorf (Kr. Freudenstadt / BW). Along the north wall of the trapezoid walled annex in the northwest corner of the villa rustica a 30m long and only 2,5m wide structure was found. It consisted of a portico, open towards the south, which was flanked by small rooms. In the long axis of this hall eleven point and one strip foundations were found, which originally supported at least ten to eleven life-sized or slightly larger than life-sized sculptures of gods and goddesses. After initial studies of the numerous sculpture fragments of Stubben sandstone they contained Mars, two separate versions of Mercury, Minerva, Venus, Hercules, Diana and Silvanus and either Apollo or Juno. In addition to this Hall of the Gods the 1200sqm annex also contained two simple rectangular structures, which were inserted into the south-western corner and the other in the south eastern corner of the dividing wall respectively, between the annex and the rest of the villa enclosure. Thus far no indications as to their function are available.
Villa rustica Hechingen-Stein
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Overall plan of
the villa and detail plan of the temple complex as well as reconstructed
front of a shrine
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Selected fragments
of the sculpture from the temples/shrines and fragments of a Jupiter
column
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A further enclosed ritual area was
excavated immediately next to the enclosure wall of the villa of Hechingen
Stein (Zollernalbkr. / B) and is linked to it with short walls. The area
was extended once and is surrounded by wall topped with tiles. In its last
phase the area covered an area of c. 1000sqm. Apart from two simple buildings,
which were fitted into the south-west and south-east corner and which may
have served to hold liturgical vessels and donations, a total of ten small,
shrine-like structures were discovered, whose square ground plans cover the
entire northern and north-eastern half of the complex. Numerous sculpture
fragments demonstrate, that they housed images of gods. Amongst these fragments,
Venus and Amor statuettes were recognisable as well a Diana relief and finally
a bull sculpture, whose display may be linked to Eastern cults, such as Jupiter
Dolichenus. In addition, remains of a Jupiter column were found with a crowning
figure of Jupiter and the Giants.
In comparison with the variant with Jupiter enthroned, which is most common
in the south of the Lower German province, the group, where the god on horseback
or in a chariot is riding down a giant, is the most common in Upper Germany.
The columns can be identified in the study area from the Neronian period onwards,
but they are at their most popular during the 2nd and 3rd century. According
to preserved dedicatory inscriptions, as for example on the accompanying altar
of a column from the villa rustica in Niefern-Öschelbronn
(Enzkr. / BW) they were often built in fulfilment of a vow or as a thanksgiving.
Their shape and decoration mix Roman and indigenous Celtic theological concepts.
Several hundred columns of this type are so far known, many of which were found
in the area of known or postulated villas.
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Jupiter and giant
column from the villa at Niefern-Öschelbronn
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Jupiter and giant
columns from the villa at Mosbach-Diedesheim
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Jupiter and Giant
column from the villa Mosbach-Diedesheim
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In Gundelsheim-Böttingen (Kr. Heilbronn / BW), Mosbach-Diedesheim (Neckar-Odenwald-Kr. / BW) or even Mühlacker-Enzberg (Enzkr. / BW) amongst others the remains of the column were found in the back fill of deep wells. Apart from the obvious idea that this is the disposal of ‚rubbish’, this phenomenon may possibly also be linked to the ritual ‚burial’ of columns in the context of the abandonment of the farms in the course of the 3rd century AD.
Even outside the context of such large monuments and special ritual structures numerous small reliefs/-sculptures and altars are known from the villas. Amongst the venerated deities Fortuna is frequently found in the main residences, bath building and finally once again in wells in Bad Rappenau-Babstadt (Kr. Heilbronn / BW), Korntal-Münchingen (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW), Oberndorf-Bochingen a. N. (Kr. Rottweil / BW), Pforzheim-Brötzingen (Stadt Pforzheim / BW) or Weinsberg; Kr. Heilbronn (BW). In addition Epona appears to have been venerated i.a. in Bad Rappenau-Babstadt (Kr. Heilbronn / BW) or Sachsenheim-Großsachsenheim (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW), and a relief of the Dioscuri is known from Stammheim (Kr. Calw / BW) or a relief of Mercury out of an ancillary building in Lauffen a.N. (Kr. Heilbronn / BW). This list could be extended by including further postulated or only surveyed villa sites.
One of the characteristic elements of villas in the northwestern provinces is the enclosing of the built-up farmyard with a fence, hedge, ditch or a wall. Where the current research allows an assessment, the villas of the study area were also as a rule enclosed. The only exceptions appear to be the smallholdings mentioned above, where it could be argued, however, that the main residence by itself forms an enclosed area with combined residential, agrarian and farmyard functions. As a well-understood example from Wurmlingen (Kr. Tuttlingen / BW) shows, such sites appear not to have had an enclosure wall, even if during the course of their history one or two ancillary buildings might have been added. At the other villas, however, walled enclosures are the norm. This may reflect our markedly better level of understanding of the stone periods in comparison with the earlier timber periods. Where the latter are better known, such as at Ladenburg (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW), Oberndorf-Bochingen a. N. (Kr. Rottweil / BW) or Walldorf (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW) slots for fences or palisaded are also found.
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Timber phase of
the Villa rustica Bondorf
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Villa of Oberndorf-Bochingen
a. N.
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Villa rustica Bruchsal-Obergrombach
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At Bondorf (Kr. Böblingen / BW), where the enclosure walls in some areas appear to have run in a double row, they appear to have served both as the enclosure and as an animal pen. A possible combination of slot-/palisade-sections alternating with stone walls is usually assumed for the villa of Bruchsal-Obergrombach (Kr. Karlsruhe / BW), whose enclosure walls sometimes stop abruptly. As many of the named examples show, the later enclosure walls tend to follow the earlier demarcation, unless the farm was extended. This close correlation can make it hard to identify the older lines. The area enclosed tends to be more or less rectangular or trapezoid. As the situation in Bondorf (Kr. Böblingen / BW) and Mundelsheim (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) demonstrates, the walls could occasionally be decorated with painted lines imitating ashlar masonry and had a covered wall top. While in Mundelsheim sandstone slabs were used as covers, the same aim was achieved in Bondorf and Hechingen-Stein (Zollernalbkr./BW) with roof tiles.
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Villa rustica "Ziegelscheuer" in
Ladenburg; gate structure
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Villa rustica "am
Hedwigshof" near Ettlingen; gate structure
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Villa rustica in
Tengen-Büßlingen; gate area with "lodge" IV
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The entrance area of the villas can
be simple gaps, but sometimes more pronounced gate flanking walls occur,
such as at Ladenburg (Rhein-Neckar-Kr. / BW) or even proper gate houses,
such as in Pforzheim-Hagenschieß (Stadt Pforzheim / BW) or Ettlingen (Kr. Karlsruhe / BW). Buildings which flanked
the gate, as for example at Tengen-Büßlingen (Kr. Konstanz / BW) and Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald / BW)
are sometimes interpreted as the houses for the manager or the gate keeper.
Apart from the enclosure walls several villas also have walls, which divide
the farmyard. Depending on the local topography, they may have been retention
or terracing walls, as in the case of Winningen (Kr. Mayen-Koblenz / RLP),
which lies just before the entrance into the Moselle valley. By contrast, the
walls in Bietigheim-Bissingen (Kr.Ludwigsburg/BW), Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck (Kr.
Ludwigsburg / BW) or Weitersbach (Kr. Birkenfeld / BW) clearly serve to separate
areas for agrarian purposes, such as stock rearing.
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Villa Winningen
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Villa rustica Weitersbach
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A
possible separation of the purely representative garden and park area is
indicated, when dividing walls insulate mostly open areas in the back of
the main residence from the rest of the farmyard, frequently by including
the residence into the walling.
Their function is close to that of the dividing walls between the pars rustica (farmyard) and the pars urbana (residential part), which can be found several times at axial type villas in the Swiss part of Upper Germany.
Villa in Heitersheim (Kr. Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald
/ BW); heavily schematized plan of phase III
Enclosed areas are not only found in the core area of the villa, but also occasionally fenced/walled areas occur outside the farmyard proper. While the numerous light walls in front of southern enclosure wall in Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) may have been animal pens, the function of the large-scale walled annex on the west side of the villa rustica in Bondorf (Kr. Böblingen / BW) remains unclear.
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Villa rustica Ludwigsburg-Hoheneck,
Phase III
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Villa rustica Bondorf;
stone period |
As its southern enclosure wall has not yet been identified, it cannot be excluded that it might have been of similar size, as the core area of the villa. Unless they served as buttresses, the wall stumps coming of the southern enclosure wall may indicate two further walled annexes outside the farmyard, one of which would have included the limekiln excavated in this area. Remains of proper buildings from the outer annexes, however, are for the most part unknown. It is at least possible to point to the "Hall of Gods", which stood inside a trapezoid enclosed in the northwest corner of a villa in Eutingen-Rohrdorf (Kr. Freudenstadt / BW). As far as the excavated remains allow these conclusions, it seems that the cult area delimited a further annex to the west of the farm. The villa in Kirchheim a. N. (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) has finally produced a unique find situation for the study area so far.
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Villa
rustica in Kirchheim a. N., Overall plan of the villa and detail plan
of the western annex
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Within the area of a bath building, which was built directly in the axis of the western enclosure wall two short wall stubs were found, pointing west, which were not followed. They may relate to an outer annex, while a multangular wall with small gate, which surrounded the building to the east, separated the bath from the remaining farm yard. Why this separation was made and what function the possible annex area in the west of the baths served, remains open.
We know little about the owners or managers of particular villas in the study area. One of the most important finds is the heavily destroyed mosaic floor from the main residence of the villa in Laufenburg (Kr.Waldshut / BW). In two tabulae, which are arranged one above the other, the following inscriptions are preserved:
[ ]
SANC[ ] (S)ANCTINI
ET SANCT(E)I ATTICI
-----------------------------
PRIS(C)[ ](I)VS
CLIEN[ ](I)
CVST[ ]
(R)[ ]
A possible reconstruction of the inscription suggests, that a certain Priscus, which may have been the current tenant (client) or possible the former manager/factor (custos) of the villa, laid the floor in honour of Sancteius Sanctinus and Sancteius Atticus, which were probably the owners of the site. (compare i.a Rothkegel 1994, 43f.). Gentile nomina such as Sanctus, Sanctius, Sancteius or Sanctinus have been found in neighbouring Switzerland commonly in connection with indigenous people. (cf. Jahrb. SGU, 1939, 96f.). It seems thus possible that the villa owners were perhaps two brothers from a Romanised Helvetian and Rauracan family. The inscription documents at the same time, that the luxurious appointment of the main residence not necessarily presupposes the presence of the owner and that tenanted objects are not necessarily characterised by a lower quality of furnishings and fittings.
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Main residence
of the Villa rustica Laufenburg
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Altar of the Jupiter
coloumn of the villa rustica Niefern-Öschelbronn
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Further evidence for villa owners are also known from dedications on religious monuments, such as the frequently occurring Jupiter column. There is for example an altar of the late 2nd/early 3rd century AD, which was found in connection with one such column in the area of the villa of Niefern-Öschelbronn (Enzkr. / BW), with the following inscription: "in honour of the Imperial house and Jupiter the best and greatest, Valeriana, the sister, has set this on behalf of Maternus Marcianus in fulfilment of the vow, happy, willing and as it should be done". The name Maternus and Marcianus are both known elsewhere in the Rhine- and Neckar area (cf. i.a. Fischer 1925-1928). The inscription does not make it clear whether it relates to the owner or the tenant of the farm.
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Villa of Heitersheim;
Pottery
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Very little is known about the cemeteries which of necessity had to accompany each villa in our study area. This is all the more true, if groups of graves that were identified without association to a known and securely identified villa are excluded. This is to an extent the result of the only fragmentary study of most villa sites.
With a few the exceptions such as the cremations of the timber phase of the villa in Oberndorf-Bochingen a. N. (Kr. Rottweil / BW), which were found close to the enclosure wall of the extended stone period, the largely excavated examples of villa enclosures suggest, that it was uncommon to bury within the enclosure walls or immediately around it in the 1st –3rd century AD. Thus the graves associated with the villas "Am Annaberg" in Bad Dürkheim (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP), Boos (Kr. Bad Kreuznach / RLP), Heidesheim (Kr. Mainz-Bingen / RLP), Katzenbach (Donnersberg-Kr. / RLP) and Wachenheim (Kr. Bad Dürkheim-Weinstraße / RLP) all lay between 100m to 400m from the villa. They were for the most part cremations.
There is also very little evidence for grave monuments. Apart from possible barrows in the vicinity of the villa in Weiterbach (Kr. Birkenfeld / RLP), five stone structures were found about 800m from the villa of Kirchheim a. N. (Kr. Ludwigsburg / BW) and have occasionally been interpreted as funerary temples. Alternatively, the single roomed structures with some evidence of sculptured decorations, may have been the remains of a small temple complex.
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Kirchheim a. N.;
overall plan of the possible funerary temples in the Schloßwald
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Rothselberg; Group
of funerary sculptures from the vicinity of the villa rustica
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Definite
evidence for the presence of some rather sumptuous grave architecture came
from Rothselberg (Kr. Kusel / RLP). An altar-shape monument was raised over
(2.7 m x 1.5 m) large foundations, on top of which apparently stood three
separate groups of sculptures. While the central one showed a lion over human
prey, the two flanking once consisted of a boar, which held a pig between
his hoofs. In a church on the area of the villa of Medard (Kr. Kusel / RLP)
re-used blocks, which show vegetal scrolls, animals and a scene from the
Medea cycle were found, which show, that these more impressive grave monuments
were far from unique. As they had a representative function, their location
must be sought within recognisable proximity to the villa, but also well
within view or even alongside close-by roads. It seems thus quite possible,
that the foundations of the large grave monument in Karlsruhe-Durlach (Stadt
Karlsruhe / BW), which was found close to the Roman road from Heidelberg
to Basel together with the stele of the 100 year old veteran Flavius Sterius, should
be linked to the inhabitants of a villa , which lay on the opposite bank
of the Pfinz.
The find in the church of Medard illustrates quite well, why so few fragments survive of the original amount of rural grave monuments. Apparently these buildings were already being dismantled in late Roman times as a source of easily accessible building stone.
Christian Miks
Allewelt u.a. 1992 H. Allewelt / K.
Kortüm / H. U. Nuber, Das Hauptgebäude der villa urbana von Heitersheim,
Kreis Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald. Arch. Ausgr. Baden-Württemberg 1992, 171ff..
Allewelt u.a. 1993 H. Allewelt / K. Kortüm / H. U. Nuber, Gesamtplan der Villa
urbana von Heitersheim, Kreis Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald. Arch. Ausgr. Baden-Württemberg
1993, 181ff..
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Arnoldi 1907 R Arnoldi, Die römische Ansiedlung Ober-Winningen "auf
dem Bingstel". Bonner Jahrb. 116, 1907, 363ff..
Arnsperger 1982 K. Ph. F. Arnsperger, Geschichte und Beschreibung der Großherzoglichen
Forstdomaine im Hagenschieß 1833. Schriftenr. Landesforstverw. Baden-Württemberg
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Aßkamp 1989 R. Aßkamp, Das südliche Oberrheingebiet in frührömischer Zeit.
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Konstanz. Arch. Schweiz 9, 1986, 57ff..
Balle 1999 G. Balle, Der Villa rustica Bietigheim "Weilerlen" –
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Baumgärtner-Heck 2001 E. Baumgärtner Heck, Die Terra sigillata aus der römischen
Villa rustica Pforzheim-Hagenschieß (Stadt Pforzheim). Fundber. Baden-Württemberg
25, 2001, 717ff..
Bayer 1967 H. Bayer, Die ländliche Besiedlung Rheinhessens und seiner Randgebiete
in römischer Zeit. Mainzer Zeitschr. 62, 1967, 125ff..
Behrens 1920 G. Behrens, Bingen. Kataloge west- und süddeutscher Altertumssammlungen
VI/2 (Frankfurt a. M. 1920).
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der Remigiuskirche in Nagold, Kreis Calw. Denkmalpfl. Baden-Württemberg 10,
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