Formation of Route-, Industry- and Fort-Settlements (Noricum)

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Origin of the Route- and Industry-settlements

Continuation of villages (Noricum)

For the central sites of south Noricum, in the Celtic period mostly consisting of hilltop settlements, continuity from the Celtic to the Roman period can only be established in very differing forms:

at the hilltop settlement of the Gracarca, a discontinuity in settlement development is assumed at the end of the Iron Age, while the latest architectural structure, erected in mortar construction, dates to the Augustan period.

Evidently a continuous settlement development can be established for the settlement on the Gurina, which specialised in the refinement and working of metals. The overall statistic of the spectrum of finds reveals no hiatus, instead however retrograde tendencies in the settlement development after 50 A.D. The erection of a temple of gallo-roman type with central cella and surrounding porticoes at the site of a former space for burned sacrifices indicates a continuity, not only for the economic but also for the cultic importance of the site. The establishment of the administrative centre in Teurnia-St. Peter in Holz indicates equally a loss of importance of the assumed central site on the Gurina.

In connection with the break in continuity of settlements in the early Roman period, the most well-known example is certainly the central site on the Magdalensberg, old Virunum. The urban settlement centre of Virunum was transferred in the mid-1^st century A.D. from the slopes of the Magdalensberg into the valley, while a non-urban settlement can be equally attested for the Flavian period and into the late 2^nd c. A.D. on the terraces surrounding the plateau at the peak of the Magdalensberg. The significance of the Celtic settlements on the Frauenberg near Leibnitz is underscored not only by the two cultic areas but also by the evidence for the minting of coins. The administrative centre was transferred from the summit of the hill into the valley, at the latest at the time of the elevation in status of the settlement Solva to a municipium during the reign of Emperor Vespasian. On the Frauenberg, cult and probably also settlement continuity is attested from the late Latène period up until late antiquity.

North Noricum: for the fort settlements of the Norican Limes zone, a lack of evidence for settlement continuity from the Celtic to the Roman period can be established, with the exception of Lentia-Linz. In this regard, the fort sites of Boiodorum-Passau and Lentia-Linz provide exclusive evidence for settlement centres of the Celtic period. At Lentia-Linz, continuous settlement of the ridges on the Martinsfeld can be assumed, and can be attested at the Keplerwiese on the Schloßberg. Here, in contrast to the fortified areas at Linz-Freinberg and Linz-Gründberg, it is a question of open settlements. In the early Roman period, these findings were supplemented by additional settlements on the sloping regions (Flügelhofgasse) and on the plain directly adjacent to the chain of hills (Lessingstraße). New settlements with construction in strip parcels (Hahnengasse), which were established at the same time as the completion of the fort in the mid-Imperial period, lie far away from these older settlement centres, on low ground close to the Danube.

Continuation of fort settlements

The billeting of the base camps from the Flavian period (or later) up until late antiquity can be assumed for all the forts along the Norican Danube border; the phenomenon of a continued existence of fort settlements after the departure of the military cannot be observed.

New Route-/Industry-settlements

Topography and relation to Traffic Routes

Settlement positions, Topography: the fort settlements along the Danube border lay on river terraces of the Danube, ca. 180-288 m. above sea level. Exceptionally at Lentia-Linz, in accordance with Latène tradition, the settlement extended along hill slopes and high plains (Martinsfeld, Schloßberg, 400 m. above sea level). The route-/industry-settlements in the hilly regions of southern Noricum were mostly located on low terraces (ca. 300 to 410 m. above sea level); exceptionally on the Frauenberg and conforming here also to Latène tradition the settlement was established on artificial terraces as well as on levelled ground (380 m. above sea level). The industrial settlement of Pichling near Köflach, which specialised in metal smelting, was located at a higher elevation (498 m. above sea level). The river valleys and plains of the central south-Norican region were made accessible through route-/industry-settlements on low terraces as well as on hill slopes (ca. 530 to 640 m. above sea level). Artificial terraces can be assumed at Meclaria-Maglern and at Baldersdorf. The houses around the peak plateau of the Magdalenberg, which presumably were without exception only temporarily occupied, were above average in their elevation (1059 m. above sea level). The trading base on the Gurina in the Gail valley, which was permanently inhabited since the Iron Age, lay at an elevation of 800 m. above sea level, and the settlement extended along a row of terraced slopes. In the valley floor of the Tauern region and the Pustertal, the highest permanently inhabited route-/industry-settlements are found at Immurium-Moosham (1092 m.), Strassen (1099 m.) and Sebatum-San Lorenzo di Sebato (835 m.). The route-/industry-settlements of the northern Alpine valleys were situated markedly lower, Urreitung at 559 m., Karlstein at 525 m. and Hallstatt at 527 m. The lakeside settlement of Bedaium-Seebruck was established in the Alpine forelands, although nonetheless at 550 m. above sea level.

Route-/Industry-settlements on the main transportation routes, south Noricum: the settlement of Kalsdorf lay on the main route from Solva to the north and from here to the east; not far from Kalsdorf a milestone stands at Lebern (20 miles from Solva). In Kalsdorf, an extended route intersection resembling a plaza with gravelled surface is attested (width of road 16 m., width of the plaza 30 m.). Meclaria-Maglern lies on the main traffic route to Italy; the further course of the road is indicated by the milestone of Camporosso in Valcanale. Baldersdorf lies on the route leading to the north-west in the direction of Teurnia, whereby the alignment along the Drau is marked by the milestones in Wollanig and Teurnia. The road along the Tauern route Teurnia – Katschberg – Radstädter Tauern leads through Immurium-Moosham. The course of the route can be well reconstructed via numerous milestones, one of which is found in Immurium-Moosham itself. Along the route leading from Aguntum to the west are found the route-/industry-settlements of Strassen and Sebatum-San Lorenzo di Sebato, in each of which milestones were erected (at Sebatum-San Lorenzo di Sebato, a distance of 56 miles from Aguntum is recorded).

Route-/Industry- and Fort-settlements along the main transportation routes, north Noricum: the significance of Bedaium-Seebruck is due to the forking of two transportation routes from Iuvavum to the west, and from Boiodorum-Passau to the south. The course of the road from Iuvavum westwards to Bedaium-Seebruck is marked by numerous milestones. The line from Iuvavum to Ovilavis can be well reconstructed on the basis of finds of milestones, and the settlement of Tarnontone-Pfongau lies along this line. The border road (Limes road) is documented at Boiodorum-Passau by a west-east oriented street (ht. 0.3 - 0.4 m.) with gravelled surface which ran past the striped parcels in the direction of the south front of the fort. A parallel road to the ‘Limes’ road can be recognised in the section Linz-Hahnengasse (greatest width 6 m.); the cross-streets at right-angles to this road reveal a width of 3 m. The course of the Limes road in Arelape-Pöchlarn is indicated by a milestone. In the southern fort settlement of Favianis-Mautern a north-south oriented street, up to 6.5 m. wide, exists. This road must have met the additional line of the Limes road running past Favianis-Mautern to the south; the east-west course of this is documented by the Geleisstraße in Mauternbach and the milestone in Hollenburg. At Augustianis-Traismauer, the main transportation route is oriented east-west; a two-phase gravelled stretch of road reveals a maximum width of 4 m. for the oldest phase. The further course of the Limes road is identified by milestones from Gemeinlebarn, Comagenis-Tulln, and Nitzing.

Function of Places

No sources exist for the function of the route-/industry-settlements in Noricum as administrative centres; the few finds from the settlements of inscriptions which name officials are based on those from the major towns, whereby these not necessarily but most probably originate from the very administrative centre to which the settlement territorially belonged. The only source of evidence for magistrates of smaller administrative bodies, functioning independently from the administration of the city, is the inscription from St. Margarethen in the Lavanttal, which refers to pag(i) mag(istri).

Economic Centres

The function of the settlements along the major trade routes and near the forts as places for the transfer of goods is elucidated by the provision of the settlers with imported wares, and can be particularly recognised in the fact that the flow of imported goods into Noricum markedly decreases outside these infrastructurally accessible areas. Trade with regional or locally produced goods is indicated in the area of ceramics by the graffito on a mortar from Boiodorum-Passau, which indicates the price of the bowl (mortarium) as half a denarius; furthermore, in the realm of textiles, the lead tags from Immurium-Moosham and Kalsdorf may be mentioned as examples.

The distribution function of the route-/industry-settlements is indicated by the town-square-like expansion of the main roads at the settlements of Kalsdorf and Saaz. The significance of the settlements as the location of various branches of commerce is supported by numerous pieces of archaeological evidence.

Smelting of iron, working of iron and other variegated metals: evidence for the working of metal is well-attested in the route-/industry-settlements and fort-settlements of Noricum; iron smelting is attested in seven settlements to date, based on slag finds.

Agricultural Production: the storage and processing of the yield produced from arable land can be understood as a normal aspect of economic life in the Norican Route-/Industry- and Fort settlements of the Alpine forelands. In addition to the botanical evidence of macro-remains at Bedaium-Seebruck, Lentia-Linz and Favianis-Mautern, structural remains also provide evidence for this activity. At Lentia-Linz, a granary was built in the 1^st c. A.D. in the flood-free zone. Amongst the permanent installations which provide evidence for production and processing of agricultural materials beyond the normal requirements of the inhabitants, kilns for drying or smoking stand out; these are found at a series of north Norican settlements (civil Route-/Industry settlements: Bedaium-Seebruck, Karlstein; Fort settlements: Boiodurum-Passau, Favianis-Mautern). The large kitchen (Wallsee) and bakery (Boiodurum-Passau, Favianis-Mautern) establishments, found exclusively in fort-settlements, point to production designed to meet military needs.

Transformation of handiwork/craft activities in the Route-/Industry- and Fort Settlements

The Appearance of the Route-/Industry- and Fort Settlements (Noricum)

Public Buildings

Typical Building Structures

Route-/Industry-settlements with single-/multi-room houses - Gleisdorf, Kalsdorf, Saaz, Frauenberg near Leibnitz, Colatio-Stari trg, Tarnantone-Pfongau

At the settlements of Gleisdorf, Kalsdorf, Saaz, Frauenberg near Leibnitz and Colatio-Stari trg, all in south Noricum, single- and multi-room houses can be identified as typical structures; these were erected along a road, occasionally in rectangular, enclosed courtyard areas. As the oldest conclusive example published to date, the single-room house at Saaz, a square post-building dating to the Flavian period, can be mentioned. At Saaz, development in the form of wooden half-timbered constructions is attested for the Hadrianic period, while at Gleisdorf, the change from wooden architecture to wood and stone architecture around the mid-2^nd century has been postulated. Moreover, in some cases an enlargement of the original core space via supplementary installations and additions – that is, an improvement into a multi-room house – can be recognised. At Gleisdorf the single-room houses show a maximum size of 52 m² (7 x 7.5 m.), while the multi-room house covers 85 m² (9 x 9.5 m.) situated in a 363 m² (16.5 x 22 m.) large enclosed area.

In north-west Noricum, only one civilian Route-/Industry-settlement with single-/multi-room houses can be confirmed, in which to date evidently no other house types are present: in Tarnatone-Pfongau, a single-room house with hypocaust system covering at least 29 m² (8 x at least 3.6 m.), and a multi-room house consisting of a central room with hypocaust system, two additional rooms and a gallery, with a total area of 259 m² (18.5 x 14 m.), are documented. Another multi-room house with a porch has an area of 85 m² (9 x 9.5 m.). The structures are assumed to date from the 2^nd c. A.D. onward.

Route-/Industry-settlements with mixed development (Single-/Multi-room houses and strip buildings - Immurium-Moosham, Bedaium-Seebruck)

Route-/Industry-settlements with mixed development (Single-/Multi-room houses and Corridor House – Karlstein

Fort Settlements with Development in Strip Parcels – Boiodurum-Passau, Lentia-Linz, Favianis-Mautern, Augustianis-Traismauer, Asturis-Zwentendorf, Comagenis-Tulln

In Noricum, only the fort settlements provide evidence for strip parcels of land which incorporate the entire settlement area. Extensive finds exist at Boiodurum-Passau, Lentia-Linz, Favianis-Mautern and Augustianis-Traismauer, while a strip building exists at Comagenis-Tulln. The regular development of these land parcels with strip buildings, which have a cellar on the side facing the street, is only attested by one find at Lentia-Linz (Hahnengasse), according to the current state of research. For all the other Norican fort settlements, the land usage seems to have been determined by need, and differing structures are attested. This heterogeneous development is most evident for cellars, very few of which are found in Norican fort settlements (Boiodurum-Passau, Wallsee, Favianis-Mautern, Augustianis-Traismauer); the cellars do not represent a common component of the architectural development.

Strip parcels with Multi-room Houses, Strip Buildings, Sunken Huts: At Favianis-Mautern, land parcels with strip buildings, with cellars on the street side as well as in the middle of the property, are found scattered throughout all areas of the fort settlement. A regular development with such structures, however, cannot be verified, especially since large areas of the settlement were built up with simple sunken huts contemporary with the other structures. For the oldest settlement period (Flavian), the development of the ca. 400 m² (10 x 40 m.) large strip parcels with multi-room houses can be identified, and the strip buildings ought to be dated later than these. Cellars as components of strip buildings are only attested in isolated cases; two cellars built of stone have niches in the wall. One of these is an integrated element of a strip building which was studied in its entire length, and which was destroyed by fire probably in the mid-3^rd century. This building, which has been erroneously termed ‘The Villa of Mautern’, measured 575 m² (50.9 x 11.3 m.), and its cellar, which lay in the middle of the land parcel, measured 15 m² (2.7 x 5.8 m.).

Rectangular sunken huts may be mentioned as a special feature of the eastern fort settlements of Noricum (Favianis-Mautern, Zwentendorf, Comagenis-Tulln); their arrangement in the strip parcels in single or multiple constructions imposed a structuring of the parcels into residential and work areas. Sunken huts were traditional building forms in the alluvial areas of the Alpine foreland during the late Latène period, and also appear in the hinterland beyond the border in north-east Noricum (Unterradlberg). At the fort settlement of Favianis-Mautern, sunken huts are attested dating back to the earliest period of construction in the late 1^st c. A.D., although the highest concentration of their occurrence dates to the 2^nd and early 3^rd centuries A.D. It can be confirmed that the complex development with multi-room houses of the earliest settlement period, in many cases was superseded by sunken huts in the course of the mid-imperial development. The average size of the huts is between 8-10m² (3.4 x 2.8 m.), and in most cases the roof rests on a two-post construction.

Most important building plots in the overview

The construction of sunken huts in the north-east Norican fort settlements is based upon Iron Age traditions. In Favianis-Mautern, these huts were fitted into land which had been parcelled according to Roman surveying standards.

Strip buildings, frequently supplied with a cellar, can be identified as new Roman forms in the fort settlements. Furthermore, development in the form of land strips is also attested in the west Norican hinterland, whereby these isolated occurrences display affinities to the long houses of the countryside (cottage houses).

Furnishing and Equipment of the Private Houses

Changes in the Way of Constructing

Based on the modern interpretation of findings, a general phenomenon in the development of the settlements of south-east Noricum and along the border can be observed, namely that pure wooden architecture in the majority of cases was replaced in the course of the 2^nd century A.D. by a combined stone and wooden construction technique, less frequently by pure stone architecture. The buildings from Kalsdorf, Gleisdorf and Saaz provide archaeologically well-studied examples of this technological change, while for the fort settlements buildings at Lentia-Linz, Favianis-Mautern, and Comagenis-Tulln may be mentioned. The constant expansion of the area of usage of a house, and the addition of sub-floor heating as the most recent renovation measures, can be identified not only in south-east Noricum (Saaz) but also in north-west Noricum (Bedaium-Seebruck) as an example of continual expanding development during the 1^st century up until the late 2^nd/early 3^rd century A.D.

At the fort settlement of Favianis-Mautern it can be established that the alteration in the manner of building need not correspond to a linear development. Here it can be recognised that the complex multi-room houses situated in strip parcels of land of the late 1^st c. A.D. were superseded in the early 2^nd century A.D. by simple sunken huts constructed in the existing land strips.

Indication of Cults

Public cultic areas with altars or temples can only generally be confirmed at the Norican settlements when continuity of location and, at the same time, of cult can also be confirmed. Continuity of cult is secure at Frauenberg near Leibnitz, while for sites such as the peak of the Magdalensberg such continuity is still debated. In this connection, the most prominent example is certainly provided by the finds from Frauenberg near Leibnitz, where – high above the plain of Leibnitz and thereby high above the settlement area of Municipium Flavia Solva - the temple sanctuary extended along one of the highest points of the mountain. In the Roman period, the cults of Isis and Mars have been postulated here. On the Gurina, the worship of Hercules is indicated by the presence of numerous statuettes, and a temple of gallo-roman type with surrounding colonnades was located at the highest point of the settlement. The excavations in this temple at the Gurina indicate that continuity in cult location from the Iron Age up until the Roman period can be considered. A temple sanctuary with temple of gallo-roman type and dedications to Jupiter Optimus Maximus and Mars Augustus has been identified at the settlement of Colatio-Stari trg. A santuary of Bedaius is indicated at Bedaium-Seebruck, based on the presence of numerous honorific inscriptions to this local divinity. Independent of ancient traditions, the new construction of a sanctuary of Mithras occurred in Immurium-Moosham at the beginning of the 3^rd century A.D. Private cult practices can be recognised as a common phenomenon in the settlements, based on the evidence of small altars, statuettes and vessels for cultic purposes. When one considers the known evidence from excavations, cult practices in honour of the following divinities can be verified: Epona (Gleisdorf), Jupiter Dolichenus (Feldkirchen), Iuno and Mercury (Bedaium-Seebruck). The usage of vessels decorated with snakes or lizards may be ascribed to oriental cults (Favianis-Mautern). Epigraphical evidence for cult communities can be identified at Favianis-Mautern, where ‘Collegia Herculis et Dianae’ are attested.

Summary

In terms of summary remarks, it needs to be noted at the outset that the state of research with regard to the Route-/Industry- and Fort-Settlements in Noricum is regionally extremely diverse, due to the state of the sources. The fort settlements have been comparably well-studied. For all of the auxiliary forts of the Norican Danube border, with the exception of Mauer near Amstetten, information concerning the fort settlements exists. The extensive archaeological research undertaken at Favianis-Mautern, necessitated by rescue excavations, has brought about over the course of the past decades an enormous increase in the state of knowledge regarding the dynamic development of a settlement in the border region. In the hinterland, the actual definition of finds from settlements, described exclusively in short reports and documented in small sections, is difficult, as a definitive interpretation of such finds as elements of Route-/Industry-settlements (vici), road stations (mansiones), or estates is mostly not possible. The similar orientation of structures towards a road running nearby and the presence of small-scale economic units with land parcels and property areas of up to 500/600 m², have been considered as definitive criteria for the definition of settlement areas as Route- and Industry-settlements.

In Noricum, settlement continuity from the Celtic to the Roman period is a rare phenomenon, and can generally be explained in individual cases by a pre-existing cult continuity (e.g. the sanctuaries on the Frauenberg near Leibnitz) or by economic necessity (e.g. goods emporia on the Gurina and in Lentia-Linz). In the rare instances that Celtic settlements such as the Frauenberg near Leibnitz or Lentia-Linz continued into the Roman period without hiatus, these places lost a great deal of their significance as a central site, and new centres were developed in the surrounding regions (e.g. Flavia Solva-Wagna and Ovilavis-Wels). Based on the findings in south-west and south-east Noricum, it can be assumed that an opening-up of the land occurred, by which catchment areas of adequate size fell to the route-/industry settlements. This can be assumed due to the comparable distances which exist between the settlements.

The naming of such catchment areas as ‘pagi’ might be indicated by an inscription from St. Margarethen in Lavanttal, which is the only source from Noricum to name an administrative unit which was independent from the municipality. It can equally be established that, until now, there is no evidence from any of the Norican Route-/Industry-settlements for an autonomous administration. In contrast to the situation in Celtic society, it is possible that in Roman society the craft of metalwork was carried out in large measure outside the central sites. The smelting and forging of iron can be identified in the Route-/Industry-settlements from all areas of Noricum, while the working of nonferrous metal is attested with particular frequency in the Alpine forelands up to the Danube border, as well as in the south-east Norican hilly regions. Proximity to deposits of mineral resources was a determining factor for the foundation of settlements far removed from the main transportation routes (e.g. Pichling near Köflach).

Again in contrast to Celtic society, where the central sites fulfilled military and economic as well as cultural and cultic functions at the same time, the Roman fort settlements were restricted to their primary function as supply centres for the military support points. Handwork activities which are archaeologically attested at Favianis-Mautern extend, for example, from iron and nonferrous metal working and bone carving, to leather working, textile manufacture, and ceramic production. Furthermore, one function reserved for the fort settlements in Noricum, apart from the estates and the Route-/Industry-settlements of the north-west Norican hinterland (Bedaium-Seebruck, Karlstein), was the preparation of foodstuffs in large volume. The function as a goods emporium can be attested based on the statistic of imports from Mediterranean and western Roman provenance as well as on the basis of structural finds (storage building in Lentia-Linz).

The connection to tradition on the part of the inhabitants is most clearly expressed in the forms of buildings chosen. Single-room houses, carried over from simple Celtic post buildings, are a typical form of construction in the Route-/Industry-settlements of the 1^st and 2^nd centuries A.D. In addition, multi-room houses can frequently be understood as a further development of the single-room house. Large enclosed courtyard areas of rectangular form can be identified as the most common single plot of land. The parcelling of land into strips, and the manner of building which was adjusted to these strips, is a predominant phenomenon exclusively in the fort settlements. Even in these fort settlements, however, it was normal to adapt the development of these strip parcels to individual needs. Strip buildings with closed roof expanses would have formed an exception, a development with multi-room houses as well as sunken huts is much more likely to have been the case. In the hinterland without exception scattered evidence for strip-form development can be observed (Bedaium-Seebruck, Urreiting, Immurium-Moosham), which appeared contemporaneously with other building forms. The acceptance of new building types occurred based on needs and dependent on raw materials, as can be best illustrated by the evidence for the distribution of sub-floor heating, which only regularly appears in Alpine regions. At what small scale the Roman building types were adapted by the indigenous inhabitants can best be understood by observing the tradition of the single-room house. This building type, disseminated in the 1^st and 2^nd centuries throughout the route-/industry-settlements in particular in south-eastern and western Noricum, was introduced and extended into the border regions due to the new settlements of the late 3^rd century; whereby sub-floor heating constituted the only alteration to the original building form (e.g. Favianis-Mautern).

H. Sedlmayer

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