Ceramic Production according to Roman Prototypes up to the beginning of the 3^rd c. A.D.

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Location of the Ceramic and Terracotta Production according to Roman prototypes

The production of pottery vessels and architectural ceramics is primarily attested, on the basis of workshop findings, in north and south-east Noricum. The largest urban production centre of the early and mid-Imperial period for pottery vessels and moulded wares was located at Iuvavum-Salzburg (northern Noricum); additional urban sites of pottery production in northern Noricum are Ovilavis-Wels and Cetium-St. Pölten. In rural areas, evidence for pottery production based on Roman prototypes is substantially less; in this connection, the manufacture of lamps in south-east Noricum can be mentioned. Furthermore, the pottery vessel and terracotta production at the fort settlement of Favianis-Mautern along the Danube was significant; here, manufacture specialised in the working of high-quality clay rich in kaolin.

Roman-influenced Ceramic Production in Roman Towns

To date, local pottery production has been identified in five towns in the province of Noricum; at Iuvavum-Salzburg, northern Noricum, in addition to production mainly determined by Celtic forms, evidence for moulded wares based on Roman prototypes also exists. Terracottas and lamps in Roman style were produced in Ovilavis-Wels. The evidence of imitation Sigillata-ware, manufactured in moulds, at Cetium-St.Pölten is also significant. Until now, no evidence exists for pottery production based on Roman prototypes for the workshops and workshop dumps - also insufficiently published - at Flavia Solva-Wagna and Celeia-Celje, southern Noricum. At Iuvavum-Salzburg, the earliest possible evidence for the manufacture of Roman-Mediterranean forms comes from the second half of the 1^st c. A.D., with the findings of mortars and jugs in a pottery dump. The adoption of Roman forms is, however, securely documented in the 2^nd c. A.D. on the basis of a mould for mask appliqués from Iuvavum-Salzburg. The production of lamps and figural terracottas at Ovilavis-Wels ought to date to the 2^nd c. A.D. The attempt at manufacturing imitation Sigillata wares using the mould technique in Cetium-St. Pölten did not occur before the late 2^nd/early 3^rd c. A.D.

Production of Moulded Wares at Cetium-St. Pölten

At Cetium-St-Pölten, north Noricum, evidence exists for the local production of imitation Sigillata wares in the late 2^nd and early 3^rd centuries A.D. Finds of moulds and of misfired objects prove that, following the model of central and east-Gallic wares of the late 2^nd c. A.D. as well as ‘Rheinzabern’ Sigillata, an attempt was made to manufacture such products locally. The moulds, as well as the discarded remains of imitations of bowls of type Drag. 37, originate from a quarter on the western edge of the town. In the workshop area which was arranged with single- and two-room wooden postpad buildings and locations for fires, which was laid out between stone structures, two pottery kilns were also documented; in these kilns, generally very rough ceramics for everyday use such as carinated bowls, plates, jugs, lids and mortars were fired. There is no evidence for the export of these wares beyond the areas of local usage.

Production of Moulded Wares in Ovilavis-Wels

The manufacture of high-quality terracottas in moulds is attested at Ovilavis-Wels. Since, however, the finds of moulds for figural terracottas and lamps do not originate directly from findings from workshops, the identification of the original location of the production site is based exclusively on the concentration of finds in the north-eastern perimeter of the town. Furthermore, the starting date for the production is only hypothetical: based on the numerous terracotta imports from Gaul into north-west Noricum in the late 1^st and the first half of the 2^nd c. A.D., it can be concluded that local production in Ovilavis-Wels, influenced by these imports, probably occurred in the 2^nd c. A.D. The names of the manufacturers of the models cannot be discovered, nor is there evidence concerning the distribution of the products.

Production of ceramic vessels and moulded wares in Iuvavum-Salzburg

Evidence for pottery production in the Municipium Iuvavum-Salzburg, which can be observed for a period of over three centuries, is significant. In particular, the long tradition of Celtic forms is noteworthy, which here possessed the particular characteristic of the usage of Celtic zone-painted wares up until the second half of the 2^nd c. A.D. Direct evidence for the manufacture of these wares comes from two workshop findings of the 1^st c. A.D. Roman influence can apparently first be detected in a potter’s workshop of the second half of the 1^st c. A.D. (find spot: Dreifaltigkeitsgasse), where, in addition to the manufacture of indigenous Celtic forms, that of mortars and jugs was also taken up. The most important evidence for the adoption of Roman techniques is provided by the discovery of a mould for a mask appliqué, which on the basis of context ought to date to the 2^nd c. A.D.

Iuvavum-Salzburg, Potter’s Workshop, Mid-1st c. A.D.: The earliest evidence for pottery production in Municipium Iuvavum-Salzburg dates to the Claudian – Flavian period, and can be recorded, together with block buildings from a workshop quarter, at the western edge of the town. Little is known regarding the structures of the potter’s workshop, although the working area and the heating chamber of a kiln have been identified in open ground between two block buildings. In addition to the obvious tools such as burnishing stones and wooden spatulas, misfirings were also discovered; these represent Celtic zone-painted wares commonly used at Iuvavum-Salzburg up until the second half of the 2^nd c. A.D.

Iuvavum-Salzburg, Potter’s Workshop, second half of the 1st c. A.D.: An additional potter’s workshop of the second half of the 1st c. A.D. is located in the northern settlement perimeter beyond the Salzach (find spot: Dreifaltigkeitsgasse). Here, two kilns as well as a dump pit with rejects could be documented. Local forms such as wave-band pots and, similarly to the workshop located at the Salzburg-Kleines Festspielhaus mentioned above, Celtic bottles with zonal painting predominate. Proof of influence from Italy is present in the form of jugs and mortars, evidently manufactured here at the same time.

Iuvavum-Salzburg, Potter’s Area, 2^nd c. A.D.: At Municipium Iuvavum-Salzburg the manufacture of mask appliqués, which probably should be interpreted as elements of Loeschke XX-lamps and therefore as imitations of Italian prototypes, can first be documented in the 2^nd c. A.D. The site of production did not lie near the town centre, but instead was on the other side of the river, as was the potter’s workshop from Salzburg-Dreifaltigkeitsgasse. The dumps from a pottery workshop, which also contained misfirings from pottery vessels and from tiles for within-wall heating in addition to the mould for the mask appliqués, indicate the existence of a work site here which has not yet been archaeologically documented; this was located not far from the potter’s workshop in the Dreifaltigkeitsgasse which was in use in the 1^st c. A.D. The mould for the mask appliqués provides evidence for the first time of production techniques carried out under Roman influence at Iuvavum-Salzburg, and is of importance, as much as the common local pottery ware was very heavily stamped by Celtic forms.

Iuvavum-Salzburg, Potter’s Workshop, early 3rd c. A.D.: In contrast to the other ceramic workshops which normally are found on the borders of the town, the evidence for the latest local pottery workshop occurs in the centre of town. The pottery workshop from the early 3^rd c. A.D. with its kiln formed part of a town house which was provided with heated living areas and a kitchen. The wares which were produced here on the one hand display the continued tradition of Celtic elements, for example a wave-band pot, while on the other hand the presence of parallel-sided plates, common in north-west Noricum after the late 1^st c. A.D., is probable evidence for the clearly modified adaptation of Roman forms.

A supra-regional distribution of the ceramic wares produced in Municipium-Iuvavum-Salzburg cannot yet be identified, yet it can also be established that, in the area surrounding the town, just as at Loig-Wals, independent production of pottery vessels and architectural ceramics occurred. It is noteworthy that Roman influence on the spectrum of pottery produced for the local market is scarce; the most significant example of a technique obtained from the Romans is provided by the discovery of the mould for the mask appliqués.

Roman-influenced Ceramic Production in the Settlement Sites in Rural Areas

The pottery workshops which have been identified to date in the settlement areas of northern and south-east Noricum produced wares for the local or regional market. Based on a comparison of forms between vessels found at the Route-/Industry-settlement with a workshop at Gleisdorf, south-east Noricum, and the settlement of Saaz, located 22 km. away, it can be shown that typical products from Gleisdorf were distributed down-river. Ceramic for daily use which was manufactured in the countryside settlements, with regard to technique and form, is thoroughly characterised by local features. Roman influences can be identified based on the adoption of Mediterranean vessel forms such as, for example, plates, baking dishes and mortars. The typically Roman or Mediterranean technique of creating moulded wares is only recorded in isolated cases.

Production of Sigillata and Imitation Sigillata Wares: the imitation of polished Sigillata types is a phenomenon recorded in small measure, based on the appearance of this type in settlement findings in rural areas; direct evidence of such production in finds from a potter’s workshop is not yet forthcoming or cannot be identified due to scarcity of published finds. The production of Sigillata imitations, which involved effort and required the aid of moulds, is identified exclusively in the areas around the urban centres of northern Noricum (see above) from the late 2^nd century A.D. onward. Proof for an attempt to produce Sigillata wares is known from the region around Iuvavum-Salzburg, namely, in Loig-Wals. The discovery of an unfired Sigillata at Loig-Wals reveals a connection to the large-scale production of Westerndorf. The unfinished object was found in a potter’s workshop with two kilns and a drying room, identified in the area 1 km. to the southeast of the farmstead of Loig-Wals. In addition to the attempt to produce Sigillata wares, the manufacture of tiles as well as local daily wares and forms showing Roman influence, such as baking dishes and mortars, was also taken up.

roduction of Lamps: To date, there are two pieces of evidence for the local production of Loeschke-X lamps in south-east Noricum. A mould for the manufacture of lamps originates from the Route-/Industry-settlement of Gleisdorf. The find context is not known, and therefore the mould cannot be directly connected to the potter’s workshop which is known to have existed in this settlement. An additional lamp mould was found at the Roman farmstead of Retznei not far from the south-east Norican muncipium of Flavia-Solva-Wagna: the mould for a lamp, with stamped rosette decoration, was discovered in the yard of the farmstead of Retznei. Nothing more is known regarding either the date of production of this old find, or the structure of the workshop from which this mould originates. Notable, however, is the lamp of type Loeschke X with stamped rosette, of identical form, which came from the municipium of Flavia-Solva-Wagna ca. 4 km. away; this circumstance suggests a probable small-scale dissemination of the products from Retznei.

Roman-influenced Pottery Production in Fort Settlements

Ceramic production in fort settlements can be observed as a common phenomenon along the Norican border. Since little is known regarding the range of products from these potteries, outside the case of Favianis-Mautern, it is estimated, based exclusively on the number of available finds from kilns, that the volume of pottery production – excluding Favianis-Mautern – was relatively small. An overview of products and techniques at large scale has to date been obtained solely on the evidence of the finds from the potteries of Favianis-Mautern, which were in operation from the 2^nd to the 5^th centuries A.D. The predominant types were fine and coarse wares for daily use, whereby a special characteristic can be identified, namely, that in the local production of daily wares of the 2^nd century A.D., a repertoire of forms from the Lower Pannonian and Moesian provinces, brought in by emigrants, was a determining factor. The emigration occurred after the Dacian Wars in connection with the stationing of troops at Favianis-Mautern.

The import and usage of central Gallic terracottas at Favianis-Mautern is attested from the Flavian period up to the middle decades of the 2^nd c. A.D. The local imitation of these terracottas, with the aid of the locally available kaolin-rich raw material and with the use of moulds might already be indicated for the Flavian period indirectly via a completed product; finds from the middle decades of the 2^nd c. A. D. provide additional evidence. In this connection, the discovery of two moulds for the manufacture of figural appliqués in the form of rabbits is noteworthy; these came from the context of a workshop from the mid-2^nd c. A.D. This pottery was located, together with a neighbouring manufacturing centre, in the eastern section of the settlement, approximately 300 m. distant from the fort. In addition to the roofed work area with kilns, pit huts, work pits and dump pits were also documented. These workshops were operated by a group of potters who originated from the provinces along the lower Danube (see above). Unfortunately, nothing is known regarding the relationship between lamp moulds also found in the fort settlement of Favianis-Mautern and the workshop context; the manufacturer’s name on one of these moulds is not legible.

To date, very little can be said regarding the distribution of products from Favianis-Mautern. Comparisons of raw materials and forms indicate, however, that the daily ceramic wares which were produced at Favianis-Mautern found their way along the Danube downriver to Carnuntum. Whether or not this represents organised trade in wares, or whether the vessels were simply transported by their owners, is not clear.

Overview of the Chronological Period of the Ceramic Production based on Roman Prototypes

A long-term operation of workshops in Noricum has to date only been documented exclusively at Municipium Iuvavum-Salzburg and in the fort settlement of Favianis-Mautern: at Iuvavum-Salzburg, evidence for production over three centuries is present (finds of three workshops and a site with pottery dumps, mid- to second half of the 1^st c. A.D. up to the early 3^rd century A.D.). The oldest evidence for the manufacture of pottery at Iuvavum-Salzburg dates to the middle decades and the second half of the 1^st c. A.D. It must be noted, however, that the wares from this earliest pottery hardly reveal any Roman influence, but instead are mainly to be identified as high-quality Celtic products. Roman production techniques, the manufacturing of moulded wares, are not present at Iuvavum-Salzburg before the 2^nd c. A.D. At Favianis-Mautern, ceramic wares were produced over a period of four centuries (eleven workshops, ranging from the second third of the 2^nd c. A.D. to the early 5^th c. A.D.). Large scale production under Roman influence can be recorded after the middle decades of the 2^nd c. A.D.; in addition to ceramic vessels, appliqués and terracottas were also produced. A terracotta made from the typical local raw material could provide evidence for the regional manufacture of moulded wares based on Gallic prototypes at Favianis-Mautern in the late 1^st c. A.D.

All further pieces of evidence for the production of terracottas and lamps under Roman influence in Noricum are dated not earlier than the 2^nd c. A.D.; the attempt to create Sigillata or imitations of Sigillata using moulds is a short-lived phenomenon of the late 2^nd/early 3^rd c. A.D.

Overview of Manufactured Wares, their Manufacturers, and their Distribution

The production of Sigillata ware or imitation Sigillata, which involved effort and required the aid of moulds, is identified exclusively in the areas around the urban centres of northern Noricum (Loig-Wals near Iuvavum-Salzburg, and Cetium-St. Pölten) from the late 2^nd century A.D. onward. The imitation of polished Sigillata forms in the Limes region can be presumed in the 2^nd c. A.D. based on the published finds from the pottery of Ebelsberg to the south of the fort of Lentia-Linz.

With regard to the acceptance of the Roman repertoire of forms, the evidence for the manufacture of lamps and terracottas is naturally significant, whereby the independent production of figural moulded wares is identified exclusively in northern Noricum (municipia: Iuvavum-Salzburg, Ovilavis-Wels; fort settlement: Favianis-Mautern); in contrast, the production of lamps is attested in isolated cases in northern Noricum (municipium: Ovilavis-Wels; fort settlement: Favianis-Mautern) and in south-east Noricum (Route-/Industry-settlement: Gleisdorf; farmstead: Retznei).

At the fort settlement of Favianis-Mautern, the production of moulded wares can be documented directly via finds from a workshop, at the same time as the arrival of population elements from south-east Pannonia and western Moesia during the middle decades of the 2^nd c. A.D. (after the conclusion of the Dacian wars). Additional evidence for the producers of terracottas, lamps and imitation Sigillata under Roman influence in Noricum is not available. Furthermore, nothing is known regarding the distribution of these products, with the exception of the small-scale distribution in south-east Noricum between products from the farmstead at Retznei and the municipium of Flavia Solva-Wagna 4 km. away.

H. Sedlmayer

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