Emergence of Villae Landscapes in Noricum

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Indication of pre-Roman people

Evidence for pre-Roman, Latène-period settlements in the region of or neighbouring Roman estates is, to date, mainly present in northern Noricum; secure examples are found in the hinterland of Iuvavum-Salzburg (Salzburg-Liefering, Salzburg-Morzg, Salzburg-Hellbrunn, Loig/Wals, Puch near Hallein, Goldegg), Ovilavis-Wels (Neubau) and Flavia Solva-Wagna (Södingberg).

Pre-Roman Settlements

Appearance

Agricultural production in the late Celtic period was carried out on the one hand by the inhabitants of the open settlements (e.g. in Neubau), while on the other hand there is some slight evidence for individual farmsteads, for example the finds at Hellbrunn (block building, 8.6m², 3.45 x 2.5 m) and Puch near Hallein (postpad buildings), both of which are documented in close proximity to Roman villas.

Rectangular yards with man-made boundaries are recognisable in northern Noricum in the form of Viereckschanzen at Pocking-Hartkirchen, Biburg, Truchlaching, Sondermoning, Göming, Lochen-Stullerding and Moosbach-Waasen. In Pocking-Hartkirchen, evidence for the typical gallery houses of wooden post construction (177 m², 15.5 × 11.4 m) can be adduced.

Continuatiom of Native Settlement Types

Continuous development of countryside settlements from the late Iron Age up to the Roman period cannot be proven.

New Settlements in Native Tradition

a) Geomorphological Elements/Traffic Routes

It can be established that the four archaeological sites with indigenous traditions (Hohenstein, Bachloh/Bad Wimsbach, Marzoll, Loig/Wals) were located on high plains and prominent hilltops, generally away from the main transportation routes. Loig/Wals forms an exception, being sited close to a transportation intersection and settlement centre (Iuvavum/Salzburg).

Precise dating of the farmsteads which are based on indigenous traditions is generally not possible, due to the inadequate situation of the finds and data. A beginning date after the 1^st century A.D. can be assumed for the remains of the wooden structure, not more precisely identifiable, beneath the stone building phase at the farmstead at Marzoll; for the oldest construction phase of Building C at Loig/Wals, a date in the middle decades of the 1^st century A.D. has been postulated.

c) Structures

The characteristics of the farmsteads which are based on indigenous traditions can be comprehended in the first instance in the residential buildings, single- and multi-room houses with a square or rectangular core room (Hohenstein, Bachloh/Bad Wimsbach). In Hohenstein, south Noricum, the residence covers a ground area of 221 m² (16 x 13.8 m.) and has a cellar. The house was located, together with a building for economic purposes, in an enclosed, irregularly-quadrangular area of 4066 m². The stone socle foundations supported a postpad building.

Further Development into a Roman Villa

(Individual examples with improvement phases and dating)

Two findings in northern Noricum elucidate the amalgamation of indigenous traditions with adaptations of Mediterranean prototypes in the architecture of the farmstead:

In Bachloh/Bad Wimsbach, structural evidence of the 2^nd c. A.D. exists: the residential house, measuring 176 m² (16 × 11 m), was dominated by an almost-square core room of 27 m² (5 x 5.4 m.) with sub-floor heating and wall paintings. Around this room were grouped a corridor on two sides, and a further room with hypocaust heating and adjacent kitchen. The total area of the farming estate, covering at least 8550 m² (95 x 90 m.) was enclosed. The presence of an almost-square core room is in accordance with Celtic tradition.

At Marzoll, the extension into a villa of supra-regional Roman type can be followed over the course of numerous building phases. The oldest wooden construction period, beneath the later, stone-built villa, has only been partially documented. For the siting of the stone buildings, for the most part settlement areas without previous building phases were chosen.

House with central court: the first building expansion in stone (building phase 4, from 120/130 to 170/180 A.D.), with a total area of ca. 1669 m² (30 x 53 and 7.5 x 10.5 m.) can be identified in the arrangement of residential rooms with plaster floors around an inner court. The core room with hypocaust heating system and an area of 39 m² (6 x 6.5 m.) is oriented to the central axis of the court and was annexed on to the straight alignment of the exterior, therefore representing an independent building unit separate from the remaining rooms organised in a regular linear alignment. The special characteristics of this room were also considered in the latest extension phase of the farmstead, which could be taken as an indication of the central importance of the almost-square core rooms as central features of domestic architecture, adopted from local building traditions.

Hall-house with Portico-Risalit-Façade: the latest form of the Villa at Marzoll (building phase 5, 180 A.D. to mid-3^rd c. A.D.) is represented by a Hall-house with portico-risalit-façade. The large lay-out, covering ca. 626 m² (maximum 53.5 x 13.5 m.), allows the recognition of an axial core room, similar to the older structure of building phase 4; in phase 5, this room, along with three additional rooms, was decorated with mosaics. Polychrome wall frescoes in wallpaper design can also be identified (see below).

Types of Roman Villae

a) Near-bytowns

In northern Noricum, the greatest density of villa findings can be established for the area around Iuvavum-Salzburg. ‘Streubauhöfe’ (farmsteads with irregularly arranged individual buildings) are typical; the main structures, which only in a few cases have been excavated to any great extent, represent Portico Villas (Salzburg-Liefering, Kemeting). As an example, the lay-out of a portico-villa at Salzburg-Liefering originates from the 1^st/2^nd c. A.D. The main structure here covered an area of 475 m² (26.7 x 17.8 m.), while the total area of the enclosed property covered 18.000 m² (180 x 100 m.). It also had an additional residential tract, a bathing area, and buildings for economic purposes, including a brick oven. The jutting-out of the main house beyond the enclosed area of the property can be compared to the findings at the southern Norican farmstead of Radvanje.

b) On the countryside

Peristyle villa: the type of the peristyle villa is to date less common in Noricum. The oldest known example from Katsch in southern Noricum covered a total area of 2011 m² (48 x 41.9 m.) and was constructed of stone. A neighbouring building with shallow foundations lay next to it, covering 842 m² (30.3 x 27.8 m.). The burial field belonging to it provides evidence of burials from the mid-1^st c. A.D. up until the 2^nd c.

Villa with portico: one example, with small dimensions, of the simple villa with portico is preserved at Zgornje Dovže in southern Noricum. The residential building measured 167 m² (16.4 x 10.2 m.), and remains of the surrounding wall and of adjacent structures are preserved. The dating of the structure to the 2^nd c. A.D. is indicated by the bricks which were stamped as coming from the output of Paratus and Reganus; in any case, at Vransko the manufacture of similarly stamped bricks has been assigned to this time period.

Hall-house with Portico-Risalit-Façade: examples of hall-houses with portico-risalit-façade are found in southern and northern Noricum. The completely excavated ‘Streubauhof’ at Bohova in southern Noricum possessed a total area of ca. 9466 m² (98.4 x 96.2 m.); on this property, in addition to the extensive main house (maximum length 70 m.), were located a bathing unit, square and rectangular buildings of smaller dimensions with an average area of 41 m² (6.8 x 6 m.) and a central well. Regarding the arrangement of the rooms in the main house, once again a central rectangular room with an area of ca. 36 m.² (6.5 x 5.5 m.) is noteworthy; this was situated almost axially symmetrically in the central region of the residential house, and had a hypocaust heating system. The location has been dated to the second half of the 2^nd c. A.D. In northern Noricum, the latest building phase of the villa at Marzoll (building phase 5, 180 to mid-3^rd c. A.D.) represents the type of hall-house with portico-risalit-façade. The large lay-out, covering ca. 626 m² (maximum 53.5 x 13.5 m.), allows the recognition of an axial core room, similar to the older structure of building phase 4 (see above); in phase 5, this room, along with three additional rooms, was decorated with mosaics. Polychrome wall frescoes in wallpaper design can also be identified (see below).

Interior courtyard house with Portico-Risalit-Façade or Risalit-Façade: at Engelhof in northern Noricum, the side wings for living and economic activities can be observed as measuring a maximum of 31 m. in length and 6 m. in width. The total area of the roofed property must have been ca. 510 m², arranged around two courtyards on three sides. In addition to the main structure, a bath of the block type also was present. The findings have been dated to the 2^nd/3^rd centuries A.D.

Corridor villa: a simple example of a corridor villa is found at Altheim-Simetsberg, northern Noricum. At this site, a residential house covering 168 m² (14 x 12 m.), with central corridor and a porticus which was added on later has been documented. The almost-square core room of 49 m² (6.5 x 7.5 m.) is reminiscent of the single- and multi-room houses of indigenous tradition, while the evidence for timber posts surrounding the building shows a relationship to the type of the late Celtic gallery house. Next to the residential building, and related to it, lay the bathing complex (block type). Apart from the residential building lay a single-room house, also fitted with timber posts, with an area of 54 m² (7.5 x 7.2 m.); this was converted into a multi-room house by later additions. Remains of mosaics from pit fill in the interior of this single-/multi-room house might indicate corresponding floor mosaics. Settlement activity at Altheim-Simetsberg began in the Flavian period, while the portico was added on to the main building during the latest building phase.

Development of Villas in the Roman period

Endowment of Villae in Noricum (with examples)

a) Baths

b) Heating

Hypocaust heating systems are common in parts of the main buildings, less so in areas of the neighbouring structures, and common bath complexes after the 2^nd c. A.D.

c) Mosaics

d) Wallpainting

Diffusion of Roman Villae in Noricum

a) Geomorphological Elements/Traffic Routes

According to the distribution pattern of Roman villas to date in Noricum, it can be established that proximity to the main transportation routes was not the determining factor in the choice of site. This can be most clearly illustrated by the location of findings on the road from Iuvavum to Ovilavis, where the majority of the villas were situated at some distance from the road itself. Frequently, proximity to the urban centres was significant for the location of the farmsteads. The cluster of sites in the region around Iuvavum-Salzburg is the best evidence for this. Similar circumstances also existed at Ovilavis-Wels, Virunum-Zollfeld and Flavia Solva-Wagna. In the conurbation around Iuvavum-Salzburg, a farmstead can be reckoned with approximately every 3 kilometres. In all of these cases, the most favourable land for settlement was made accessible by terracing or elevated plains. In addition to this concentration of villas in the suburban areas, furthermore, evidence of villas on the shores of lakes constitutes a common phenomenon in Noricum. The fact that the hinterland beyond the border (Limes) was scarcely opened up for development with villas is noteworthy. The situation in the Tullnerfeld is illustrative of this point: no evidence of farmsteads exists in this flat plain of the border zone, which is today intensively agriculturally exploited. In the hilly hinterlands, however, a series of villas are documented.

b) Date of Origin

The foundation dates of the villas cannot generally be determined. For the case of Loig/Wals, a period of usage for the villa area after the mid-1^st c. A.D. can be assumed. Furthermore, finds which date back to the 1^st c. A.D. are preserved, for example, at Altheim-Simetsberg, Salzburg-Liefering, Salzburg-Morzg, Hallwang and Berndorf. At any rate, the building boom did not take place before the 2^nd c. A.D. An expansion in the form of extensive villa lay-outs with mosaic decoration, as for example at Loig/Wals and Graz-Thalerhof occurred throughout the course of the first half of the 3^rd c. A.D.

Economical Bases of the Villae

a) Production

Metal: Near the metal-working and metal-smelting sites in central southern Noricum (Mösel) was found a building with a hypocaust heating system, which was erected on and or near iron slag dumps. Evidence for iron working is also attested at a series of villas in northern Noricum, for example Breitenschützing, Goldegg, Steindorf, and Marzoll.

Textiles: loom weights as evidence for textile production have to date only been found in a few of the villa sites: e.g. Salzburg-Liefering, north Noricum, and Grafendorf, south Noricum.

Storage and Working of agricultural products: the local working of grains is indicated by the presence of hand-mills, as for example in Hörndl and Köstendorf (Tannham), northern Noricum. The storage of large amounts of agricultural products in buildings resembling long halls has until now only been identified at two villas: Loig/Wals and Breitenschützing, northern Noricum.

b) Dating

Indication of Villae Owners

Summary

A direct sequence of late Celtic and early Roman settlement forms, oriented towards agriculture, cannot be shown, also even if a pre-Roman late Iron Age usage can be identified at a number of Roman villa sites. Local building form traditions are reflected in the central importance of the square core room (e.g. at Hohenstein, Bachloh/Bad Wimsbach, Marzoll) and in the covered-over surrounding colonnade (Loig/Wals, Altheim-Simetsberg, Bachloh/Bad Wimsbach). The highest density in the appearance of ‘Streubauhöfe’ can be identified for the immediate region around the urban centre of Iuvavum-Salzburg, namely in that very area where numerous examples of late Iron Age Viereckschanzen are found. For the ‘Streubauhöfe’ of the Roman period, a steady and constant increase in the dimensions of the property can be assumed; in any event, in each case of a site with local traditions, for example Hohenstein (4066 m²) or Bad Wimbach (8550 m²), smaller-scale dimensions are documented than for those more recent sites where the main house is based on supra-regional Roman prototypes, for example Bohova (9466 m²), Šmarje pri Jelsah (45,000 m²). Large-scale manufacturing sites, with independent ceramic and brick production (above all in the region around Iuvavum-Salzburg) as well as with extensive storage buildings (Loig/Wals) form the exception. Elaborate fittings with wall painting or mosaics are similarly hard to identify before the beginning of the 3^rd c. A.D. The owners of the villas seem to have been citizens whose names might also frequently appear in the region; thus, for example, L. Vedius Optatus is attested at Kemeting and Rotthof.

H. Sedlmayer

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